Trapping reagents for reactive metabolites screening

ABSTRACT

The present invention provides compounds of Formula (I) and (II): 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     wherein R 1 , R 2 , R 4 , R 5 , R 6 , X and n are as defined herein, and wherein R 3  is hydrogen or a sulfur protecting group. Compounds of Formula (I) and (II), wherein R 3  is hydrogen, may be useful in methods for detecting a reactive metabolite in a sample, e.g., wherein the metabolite is generated from the metabolism of a test compound, and wherein the metabolite and the compound of Formula (I) or (II) react to form a detectable adduct, e.g., detectable by mass spectrometry.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

The present application is a divisional of and claims priority under 35U.S.C. §120 to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/402,818, filed Nov.21, 2014, which is a national stage filing under 35 U.S.C. §371 ofinternational PCT application, PCT/US2013/042246, filed May 22, 2013,which claims priority under 35 U.S.C. §119(e) to U.S. provisional patentapplication, U.S. Ser. No. 61/650,448, filed May 22, 2012, which isincorporated herein by reference.

BACKGROUND

Drug induced toxicity remains one of the major reasons for the failureof drug candidates to be approved and the withdrawal of approved drugsfrom the market. See, e.g., Olson et al., Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol.(2000) 32:56-67. Chemically reactive electrophilic metabolites of thedrug are likely mediators of the toxicity, possibly by acting ascovalent modifiers of essential cellular machinery. See, e.g.,Guengerich et al., Arch. Biochem. Biophys. (2005) 433:369-378; Kalgutkaret al., Curr. Drug. Metab. (2005) 6:161-225. Often drugs undergobiotransformation to metabolites that can interfere with cellularfunctions through their intrinsic chemical reactivity towardsglutathione (GSH), leading to GSH depletion, and towards otherfunctionally critical macromolecules, resulting in reversiblemodification, irreversible adduct formation, or irreversible loss ofactivity. See, e.g., Srivastava et al., Handb. Exp. Pharmacol. (2010)196:165-194. There is now a great deal of evidence which shows thatreactive metabolites are formed from drugs known to causehepatotoxicity, such as acetaminophen, tamoxifen, isoniazid, andamodiaquine.

Preclinical screens have been developed in an effort to minimizebioactivation liabilities in the early stages of drug discovery. See,e.g., Ma and Subramanian, J. Mass. Spectrom. (2006) 41:1121-1139. Themost common analytical techniques used in pre-clinical screens are gaschromatography (GC) or liquid chromatography (LC) coupled to massspectrometry (MS), e.g., such as GC or LC coupled to tandem massspectrometry (MS/MS) scanning. Mass spectrometry offers a much greatersensitivity than alternative methods, such as nuclear magnetic resonance(NMR) spectroscopy, and thus affords the analysis of numerous lowabundance metabolites, but its quantitative precision is inherentlypoorer. One strategy for improving the detection of metabolites by massspectrometry involves treating the sample with a “heavy” and “light”version of an isotopic labeling reagent, thereby creating a “heavy” and“light” version of the labeled metabolite. See, e.g., Lamos et al.,Anal. Chem. (2007) 79:5143-5149. Installing a positively-chargedfunctional group has also been found to enhance the ion efficiency andcorresponding high detection sensitivity in positive ion modeelectrospray ionization-mass spectrometry (ESI-MS). See, e.g., Lamos insupra, Yang et al., Anal. Chem. (2006) 78:4702-4708; Johnson, RapidCommun. Mass. Spectrom. (2000) 14:2019-2024; Barry et al., Rapid Commun.Mass. Spectrom. (2003) 17:603-620; Mirzaei et al., Anal. Chem. (2006)78:4175-4183; Soglia et al., Chem. Res. Toxicol. (2006) 19:480-490; andU.S. Patent Application No. 2004/0248234.

However, despite these efforts, there continues to remain a need foradditional improvement and development of early screening assays toidentify and/or quantify potential chemically reactive electrophilicmetabolites which may be responsible for drug-induced toxicity.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Investigators have looked to glutathione (GSH) as a promising trappingreagent since most compounds undergoing bioactivation have been known togenerate soft electrophiles that may be trapped with a free thiol. See,e.g., Baille et al., J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. (1989) 7:1351-1360. Whiletritiated GSH trapping allows direct quantification of conjugates,adequate separation of the [³H]GSH adducts from unreacted material hasproven challenging and often results in insufficient sensitivity. See,e.g., Soglia et al., Chem. Res. Toxicol. (2006) 19:480-490 and U.S.Patent Application No. 2004/0248234. Use of a GSH analogue tethered to afluorescent dansyl tag has been used to circumvent the use of aradiolabel, but the method still requires HPLC separation offluorescently labeled conjugate from unreacted starting material. See,e.g., Gan et al., Chem. Res. Toxicol. (2005) 18:896-903 and U.S. Pat.No. 7,169,576. Soglia and co-workers have since developed a quaternaryammonium GSH analogue (QA-GSH) containing a fixed positive charge whichappears amenable to high throughput screening and does not require HPLCseparation. See, e.g., Soglia in supra. Others have used multiplereaction monitoring (MRM) as the survey scan to trigger the acquisitionof enhanced product ion (EPI) spectra on a triple quadrupole linear ionmass spectrometer using protonated GSH adducts. See, e.g., Zheng et al.,Chem. Res. Toxicol. (2007) 20:757-766. At present, however, thesensitivity of GSH screening assays are not always satisfactory.Additionally, the current approach is not good for quantitation due tothe variation of chromatography and ion suppression from run to run andfrom sample to sample.

Aspects of the present invention are based, at least in part, on theobservation that cysteine modified with the quaternary amine cholamine(“cys-chol”), as a labeling reagent, engenders a higher ionizationefficiency and corresponding detection sensitivity compared to eitherunmodified cysteine or GSH, thus allowing for the improvedidentification of additional, heretofore unknown, reactive electrophilicmetabolites in drug samples.

It is envisioned other thiol containing compounds conjugated tocholamine may have similar improved detection sensitivity. By way ofexample, it is envisioned glutathione modified with cholamine will havea similar improved detection sensitivity.

A broad application of this discovery is further envisioned, extendingthe applicability to other quaternary amines other than cholamine,conjugated to thiols other than cysteine or GSH, for use as labelingreagents for the detection of reactive electrophilic metabolites in drugsamples.

Thus, in certain aspects, the present invention provides new labelingreagents, encompassing cys-chol conjugates, of Formula (I) for thetrapping of metabolites:

wherein R¹, R², R⁴, X, and n are as defined herein, and R³ is hydrogenwhen used as a labeling reagent, or R³ is a sulfur protecting group.

In other aspects, the present invention provides new labeling reagentsof Formula (II), encompassing GSH-chol conjugates, for the trapping ofmetabolites:

wherein R¹, R², R⁴, X and n are as defined herein, R³ is hydrogen whenused as a labeling reagent, or R³ is a sulfur protecting group, and atleast one of R⁵ and R⁶ is a group of Formula (i):

wherein R⁴, X, and n are as defined herein.

In other aspects, the present invention provides methods for detecting ametabolite in a sample, the method comprising:

contacting a sample comprising a metabolite with a compound of Formula(I) or (II):

wherein R¹, R², R⁴, R⁵, R⁶, X and n are as defined herein, and R³ ishydrogen, wherein the metabolite and the compound of Formula (I) or (II)react to form an adduct; and detecting the adduct, e.g., by massspectrometry.

In certain embodiments, the sample comprises an enzyme system. Incertain embodiments, the sample comprises a test compound. In certainembodiments, the step of contacting further comprises contacting thesample comprising a test compound and the enzyme system, wherein themetabolite of the test compound is generated from metabolism by theenzyme system. In certain embodiments, the enzyme system is a P450microsomal enzyme system. In certain embodiments, the P450 microsomalenzyme system is selected the group consisting of microsomes, S9fractions, and P450 enzymes. In certain embodiments, the microsomes aremammalian liver microsomes, e.g., human liver microsomes. In certainembodiments, the S9 fraction is mammalian S9 fraction, e.g., human liverS9 fraction.

In certain embodiments, the adduct formed from the reaction of acompound of Formula (I) or (II) with the metabolite is initiated byaddition of a NADPH-generating system or NADPH. In certain embodiments,the adduct formation is initiated by addition of NADPH.

In certain embodiments, the adduct is detected using mass spectrometry.In certain embodiments, the adduct is detected using liquidchromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. In certain embodiments, themass spectrometry is electrospray ionization (ESI) coupled with tandemmass spectrometry (ESI-MS/MS). In certain embodiments, the liquidchromatography is high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC). In certainembodiments, the liquid chromatography is ultra high pressure liquidchromatography (UPLC or UHPLC).

In another aspect, provided is a method for detecting a metabolite in asample, the method comprising:

contacting a test compound, an enzyme system, and a compound of Formula(I) or (II):

wherein R¹, R², R⁴, R⁵, R⁶, X and n are as defined herein, and R³ ishydrogen;

wherein the test compound is metabolized by the enzyme system to providea metabolite; and wherein the metabolite reacts with a compound ofFormula (I) or (II) to form an adduct; and

detecting the adduct, e.g., by mass spectrometry.

In certain embodiments, the methods as described herein are methods fordetecting low levels of already known metabolites. In certainembodiments, the methods as described herein are methods of identifyingnew metabolites. In certain embodiments, the methods as described hereinare methods of improving the resolution or confidence of metabolitedetection.

The details of one or more embodiments of the invention are set forth inthe Detailed Description of Certain Embodiments, as described below.Other features, objects, and advantages of the invention will beapparent from the Definitions, Examples, Figures, and Claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIGS. 1A and 1B depict the LC-MS/MS analysis of GSH adduct formationwith clozapine (+TOF MS-MS (100-1000): 632.21+/−0.05 Da) plus tworeactive clozapine metabolites.

FIGS. 2A and 2B depict the LC-MS/MS analysis of cysteine adductformation with clozapine (+TOF MS/MS (100-1000): 446.14+/−0.05 Da) plustwo reactive clozapine metabolites.

FIGS. 3A and 3B depict the LC-MS/MS analysis of cys-chol adductformation with clozapine (+TOF MS-MS (100-1000): 530.25+/−0.05 Da) plusthree reactive clozapine metabolites. Trapping reactive metabolites withcys-chol rather than GSH or cysteine demonstrates higher ionizationefficiency and detection sensitivity.

FIG. 4 depicts the LC-MS/MS analysis of an identified reactive cys-cholmetabolite of Atrovastatin (Ator).

FIG. 5 depicts the LC-MS/MS analysis of an identified reactive cys-cholmetabolite of Carbamazepine (CMZ).

FIGS. 6A and 6B depict the LC-MS/MS analysis of cys-chol adductformation with carbamazepine (+TOF MS/MS (100-1000): 440.21+/−0.05 Da).The same experiments with GSH and cysteine (Cys) as trapping agents didnot produce any detectable conjugate.

FIGS. 7A and 7B depict the LC-MS/MS analysis of cysteine (Cys) adductformation with suprofen (+TOF MS/MS (100-1000): 380.06+/−0.05 Da).

FIGS. 8A and 8B depict the LC-MS/MS analysis of cys-chol adductformation with suprofen (+TOF MS/MS (100-1000): 464.17+/−0.05 Da),demonstrating higher ionization efficiency and detection sensitivity(20×) compared to Cys-adduct formation (see also FIG. 7A).

DEFINITIONS

Definitions of specific functional groups and chemical terms aredescribed in more detail below. The chemical elements are identified inaccordance with the Periodic Table of the Elements, CAS version,Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 75^(th) Ed., inside cover, andspecific functional groups are generally defined as described therein.Additionally, general principles of organic chemistry, as well asspecific functional moieties and reactivity, are described in OrganicChemistry, Thomas Sorrell, University Science Books, Sausalito, 1999;Smith and March March's Advanced Organic Chemistry, 5^(th) Edition, JohnWiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 2001; Larock, Comprehensive OrganicTransformations, VCH Publishers, Inc., New York, 1989; and Carruthers,Some Modern Methods of Organic Synthesis, 3^(rd) Edition, CambridgeUniversity Press, Cambridge, 1987.

Compounds described herein can comprise one or more asymmetric centers,and thus can exist in various isomeric forms, e.g., enantiomers and/ordiastereomers. For example, the compounds described herein can be in theform of an individual enantiomer, diastereomer or geometric isomer, orcan be in the form of a mixture of stereoisomers, including racemicmixtures and mixtures enriched in one or more stereoisomer. Isomers canbe isolated from mixtures by methods known to those skilled in the art,including chiral high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) and theformation and crystallization of chiral salts; or isomers can beprepared by asymmetric syntheses. See, for example, Jacques et al.,Enantiomers, Racemates and Resolutions (Wiley Interscience, New York,1981); Wilen et al., Tetrahedron 33:2725 (1977); Eliel, E. L.Stereochemistry of Carbon Compounds (McGraw-Hill, NY, 1962); and Wilen,S. H. Tables of Resolving Agents and Optical Resolutions p. 268 (E. L.Eliel, Ed., Univ. of Notre Dame Press, Notre Dame, Ind. 1972). Theinvention additionally encompasses compounds as individual isomerssubstantially free of other isomers, and alternatively, as mixtures ofvarious isomers.

When a range of values is listed, it is intended to encompass each valueand sub-range within the range. For example “C₁₋₆ alkyl” is intended toencompass, C₁, C₂, C₃, C₄, C₅, C₆, C₁₋₆, C₁₋₅, C₁₋₄, C₁₋₃, C₁₋₂, C₂₋₆,C₂₋₅, C₂₋₄, C₂₋₃, C₃₋₆, C₃₋₅, C₃₋₄, C₄₋₆, C₄₋₅, and C₅₋₆ alkyl.

As used herein, “alkyl” refers to a radical of a straight-chain orbranched saturated hydrocarbon group having from 1 to 10 carbon atoms(“C₁₋₁₀ alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 9 carbonatoms (“C₁₋₉ alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 8carbon atoms (“C₁₋₈ alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1to 7 carbon atoms (“C₁₋₇ alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl grouphas 1 to 6 carbon atoms (“C₁₋₆ alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkylgroup has 1 to 5 carbon atoms (“C₁₋₅ alkyl”). In some embodiments, analkyl group has 1 to 4 carbon atoms (“C₁₋₄ alkyl”). In some embodiments,an alkyl group has 1 to 3 carbon atoms (“C₁₋₃ alkyl”). In someembodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 2 carbon atoms (“C₁₋₂ alkyl”). Insome embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 carbon atom (“C₁ alkyl”). In someembodiments, an alkyl group has 2 to 6 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₆ alkyl”).Examples of C₁₋₆ alkyl groups include methyl (C₁), ethyl (C₂), n-propyl(C₃), isopropyl (C₃), n-butyl (C₄), tert-butyl (C₄), sec-butyl (C₄),iso-butyl (C₄), n-pentyl (C₅), 3-pentanyl (C₅), amyl (C₅), neopentyl(C₅), 3-methyl-2-butanyl (C₅), tertiary amyl (C₅), and n-hexyl (C₆).Additional examples of alkyl groups include n-heptyl (C₇), n-octyl (C₈)and the like. Unless otherwise specified, each instance of an alkylgroup is independently unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted alkyl”) orsubstituted (a “substituted alkyl”) with one or more substituents. Incertain embodiments, the alkyl group is an unsubstituted C₁₋₁₀ alkyl. Incertain embodiments, the alkyl group is a substituted C₁₋₁₀ alkyl.

As used herein, “alkenyl” refers to a radical of a straight-chain orbranched hydrocarbon group having from 2 to 10 carbon atoms and one ormore carbon-carbon double bonds (“C₂₋₁₀ alkenyl”). In some embodiments,an alkenyl group has 2 to 9 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₉ alkenyl”). In someembodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 8 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₈ alkenyl”).In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 7 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₇alkenyl”). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 6 carbon atoms(“C₂₋₆ alkenyl”). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 5carbon atoms (“C₂₋₅ alkenyl”). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has2 to 4 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₄ alkenyl”). In some embodiments, an alkenylgroup has 2 to 3 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₃ alkenyl”). In some embodiments, analkenyl group has 2 carbon atoms (“C₂ alkenyl”). The one or morecarbon-carbon double bonds can be internal (such as in 2-butenyl) orterminal (such as in 1-butenyl). Examples of C₂₋₄ alkenyl groups includeethenyl (C₂), 1-propenyl (C₃), 2-propenyl (C₃), 1-butenyl (C₄),2-butenyl (C₄), butadienyl (C₄), and the like. Examples of C₂₋₆ alkenylgroups include the aforementioned C₂₋₄ alkenyl groups as well aspentenyl (C₅), pentadienyl (C₅), hexenyl (C₆), and the like. Additionalexamples of alkenyl include heptenyl (C₇), octenyl (C₈), octatrienyl(C₈), and the like. Unless otherwise specified, each instance of analkenyl group is independently unsubstituted (an “unsubstitutedalkenyl”) or substituted (a “substituted alkenyl”) with one or moresubstituents. In certain embodiments, the alkenyl group is anunsubstituted C₂₋₁₀ alkenyl. In certain embodiments, the alkenyl groupis a substituted C₂₋₁₀ alkenyl.

As used herein, “alkynyl” refers to a radical of a straight-chain orbranched hydrocarbon group having from 2 to 10 carbon atoms and one ormore carbon-carbon triple bonds (“C₂₋₁₀ alkynyl”). In some embodiments,an alkynyl group has 2 to 9 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₉ alkynyl”). In someembodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 8 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₈ alkynyl”).In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 7 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₇alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 6 carbon atoms(“C₂₋₆ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 5carbon atoms (“C₂₋₅ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has2 to 4 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₄ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynylgroup has 2 to 3 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₃ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, analkynyl group has 2 carbon atoms (“C₂ alkynyl”). The one or morecarbon-carbon triple bonds can be internal (such as in 2-butynyl) orterminal (such as in 1-butynyl). Examples of C₂₋₄ alkynyl groupsinclude, without limitation, ethynyl (C₂), 1-propynyl (C₃), 2-propynyl(C₃), 1-butynyl (C₄), 2-butynyl (C₄), and the like. Examples of C₂₋₆alkenyl groups include the aforementioned C₂₋₄ alkynyl groups as well aspentynyl (C₅), hexynyl (C₆), and the like. Additional examples ofalkynyl include heptynyl (C₇), octynyl (C₈), and the like. Unlessotherwise specified, each instance of an alkynyl group is independentlyunsubstituted (an “unsubstituted alkynyl”) or substituted (a“substituted alkynyl”) with one or more substituents. In certainembodiments, the alkynyl group is an unsubstituted C₂₋₁₀ alkynyl. Incertain embodiments, the alkynyl group is a substituted C₂₋₁₀ alkynyl.

As used herein, “carbocyclyl” or “carbocyclic” refers to a radical of anonaromatic cyclic hydrocarbon group having from 3 to 10 ring carbonatoms (“C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclyl”) and zero heteroatoms in the nonaromatic ringsystem. In some embodiments, a carbocyclyl group has 3 to 8 ring carbonatoms (“C₃₋₈ carbocyclyl”). In some embodiments, a carbocyclyl group has3 to 7 ring carbon atoms (“C₃₋₇ carbocyclyl”). In some embodiments, acarbocyclyl group has 3 to 6 ring carbon atoms (“C₃₋₆ carbocyclyl”). Insome embodiments, a carbocyclyl group has 5 to 10 ring carbon atoms(“C₅₋₁₀ carbocyclyl”). Exemplary C₃₋₆ carbocyclyl groups include,without limitation, cyclopropyl (C₃), cyclopropenyl (C₃), cyclobutyl(C₄), cyclobutenyl (C₄), cyclopentyl (C₅), cyclopentenyl (C₅),cyclohexyl (C₆), cyclohexenyl (C₆), cyclohexadienyl (C₆), and the like.Exemplary C₃₋₈ carbocyclyl groups include, without limitation, theaforementioned C₃₋₆ carbocyclyl groups as well as cycloheptyl (C₇),cycloheptenyl (C₇), cycloheptadienyl (C₇), cycloheptatrienyl (C₇),cyclooctyl (C₈), cyclooctenyl (C₈), bicyclo[2.2.1]heptanyl (C₇),bicyclo[2.2.2]octanyl (C₈), and the like. Exemplary C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclylgroups include, without limitation, the aforementioned C₃₋₈ carbocyclylgroups as well as cyclononyl (C₉), cyclononenyl (C₉), cyclodecyl (C₁₀),cyclodecenyl (C₁₀), octahydro-1H-indenyl (C₉), decahydronaphthalenyl(C₁₀), spiro[4.5]decanyl (C₁₀), and the like. As the foregoing examplesillustrate, in certain embodiments, the carbocyclyl group is eithermonocyclic (“monocyclic carbocyclyl”) or polycyclic (e.g., containing afused, bridged or spiro ring system such as a bicyclic system (“bicycliccarbocyclyl”) or tricyclic system (“tricyclic carbocyclyl”)) and can besaturated or can contain one or more carbon-carbon double or triplebonds. “Carbocyclyl” also includes ring systems wherein the carbocyclylring, as defined above, is fused with one or more aryl or heteroarylgroups wherein the point of attachment is on the carbocyclyl ring, andin such instances, the number of carbons continue to designate thenumber of carbons in the carbocyclic ring system. Unless otherwisespecified, each instance of a carbocyclyl group is independentlyunsubstituted (an “unsubstituted carbocyclyl”) or substituted (a“substituted carbocyclyl”) with one or more substituents. In certainembodiments, the carbocyclyl group is an unsubstituted C₃₋₁₀carbocyclyl. In certain embodiments, the carbocyclyl group is asubstituted C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclyl.

In some embodiments, “carbocyclyl” is a monocyclic or bicyclic saturatedcarbocyclyl group having from 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms (“C₃₋₁₀cycloalkyl”). In some embodiments, a cycloalkyl group has 3 to 8 ringcarbon atoms (“C₃₋₈ cycloalkyl”). In some embodiments, a cycloalkylgroup has 3 to 6 ring carbon atoms (“C₃₋₆ cycloalkyl”). In someembodiments, a cycloalkyl group has 5 to 6 ring carbon atoms (“C₅₋₆cycloalkyl”). In some embodiments, a cycloalkyl group has 5 to 10 ringcarbon atoms (“C₅₋₁₀ cycloalkyl”). Examples of C₅₋₆ unsaturatedcycloalkyl groups include cyclopentyl (C₅) and cyclohexyl (C₅). Examplesof C₃₋₆ cycloalkyl groups include the aforementioned C₅₋₆ cycloalkylgroups as well as cyclopropyl (C₃) and cyclobutyl (C₄). Examples of C₃₋₈cycloalkyl groups include the aforementioned C₃₋₆ cycloalkyl groups aswell as cycloheptyl (C₇) and cyclooctyl (C₈). Unless otherwisespecified, each instance of a cycloalkyl group is independentlyunsubstituted (an “unsubstituted cycloalkyl”) or substituted (a“substituted cycloalkyl”) with one or more substituents. In certainembodiments, the cycloalkyl group is an unsubstituted C₃₋₁₀ cycloalkyl.In certain embodiments, the cycloalkyl group is a substituted C₃₋₁₀cycloalkyl.

As used herein, “heterocyclyl” or “heterocyclic” refers to a radical ofa 3to 14-membered nonaromatic ring system having ring carbon atoms and 1to 4 ring heteroatoms, wherein each heteroatom is independently selectedfrom nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“3-14 membered heterocyclyl”). Inheterocyclyl groups that contain one or more nitrogen atoms, the pointof attachment can be a carbon or nitrogen atom, as valency permits. Aheterocyclyl group can either be monocyclic (“monocyclic heterocyclyl”)or polycyclic (e.g., a fused, bridged or spiro ring system such as abicyclic system (“bicyclic heterocyclyl”) or tricyclic system(“tricyclic heterocyclyl”)), and can be saturated or can contain one ormore carbon-carbon double or triple bonds. Heterocyclyl polycyclic ringsystems can include one or more heteroatoms in one or both rings.“Heterocyclyl” also includes ring systems wherein the heterocyclyl ring,as defined above, is fused with one or more carbocyclyl groups whereinthe point of attachment is either on the carbocyclyl or heterocyclylring, or ring systems wherein the heterocyclyl ring, as defined above,is fused with one or more aryl or heteroaryl groups, wherein the pointof attachment is on the heterocyclyl ring, and in such instances, thenumber of ring members continue to designate the number of ring membersin the heterocyclyl ring system. Unless otherwise specified, eachinstance of heterocyclyl is independently unsubstituted (an“unsubstituted heterocyclyl”) or substituted (a “substitutedheterocyclyl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments,the heterocyclyl group is an unsubstituted 3-14 membered heterocyclyl.In certain embodiments, the heterocyclyl group is a substituted 3-14membered heterocyclyl.

In some embodiments, a heterocyclyl group is a 5-10 membered nonaromaticring system having ring carbon atoms and 1-4 ring heteroatoms, whereineach heteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, andsulfur (“5-10 membered heterocyclyl”). In some embodiments, aheterocyclyl group is a 5-8 membered nonaromatic ring system having ringcarbon atoms and 1-4 ring heteroatoms, wherein each heteroatom isindependently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“5-8 memberedheterocyclyl”). In some embodiments, a heterocyclyl group is a 5-6membered nonaromatic ring system having ring carbon atoms and 1-4 ringheteroatoms, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected fromnitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“5-6 membered heterocyclyl”). In someembodiments, the 5-6 membered heterocyclyl has 1-3 ring heteroatomsselected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, the 5-6membered heterocyclyl has 1-2 ring heteroatoms selected from nitrogen,oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, the 5-6 membered heterocyclylhas 1 ring heteroatom selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.

Exemplary 3-membered heterocyclyl groups containing 1 heteroatominclude, without limitation, azirdinyl, oxiranyl, thiorenyl. Exemplary4-membered heterocyclyl groups containing 1 heteroatom include, withoutlimitation, azetidinyl, oxetanyl and thietanyl. Exemplary 5-memberedheterocyclyl groups containing 1 heteroatom include, without limitation,tetrahydrofuranyl, dihydrofuranyl, tetrahydrothiophenyl,dihydrothiophenyl, pyrrolidinyl, dihydropyrrolyl and pyrrolyl-2,5dione.Exemplary 5-membered heterocyclyl groups containing 2 heteroatomsinclude, without limitation, dioxolanyl, oxathiolanyl and dithiolanyl.Exemplary 5-membered heterocyclyl groups containing 3 heteroatomsinclude, without limitation, triazolinyl, oxadiazolinyl, andthiadiazolinyl. Exemplary 6-membered heterocyclyl groups containing 1heteroatom include, without limitation, piperidinyl, tetrahydropyranyl,dihydropyridinyl, and thianyl. Exemplary 6-membered heterocyclyl groupscontaining 2 heteroatoms include, without limitation, piperazinyl,morpholinyl, dithianyl, dioxanyl. Exemplary 6-membered heterocyclylgroups containing 2 heteroatoms include, without limitation,triazinanyl. Exemplary 7-membered heterocyclyl groups containing 1heteroatom include, without limitation, azepanyl, oxepanyl andthiepanyl. Exemplary 8-membered heterocyclyl groups containing 1heteroatom include, without limitation, azocanyl, oxecanyl andthiocanyl. Exemplary bicyclic heterocyclyl groups include, withoutlimitation, indolinyl, isoindolinyl, dihydrobenzofuranyl,dihydrobenzothienyl, tetrahydrobenzothienyl, tetrahydrobenzofuranyl,tetrahydroindolyl, tetrahydroquinolinyl, tetrahydroisoquinolinyl,decahydroquinolinyl, decahydroisoquinolinyl, octahydrochromenyl,octahydroisochromenyl, decahydronaphthyridinyl,decahydro-1,8-naphthyridinyl, octahydropyrrolo[3,2-b]pyrrole, indolinyl,phthalimidyl, naphthalimidyl, chromanyl, chromenyl,1H-benzo[e][1,4]diazepinyl, 1,4,5,7-tetrahydropyrano[3,4-b]pyrrolyl,5,6-dihydro-4H-furo[3,2-b]pyrrolyl, 6,7-dihydro-5H-furo[3,2-b]pyranyl,5,7-dihydro-4H-thieno[2,3-c]pyranyl,2,3-dihydro-1H-pyrrolo[2,3-b]pyridinyl, 2,3-dihydrofuro[2,3-b]pyridinyl,4,5,6,7-tetrahydro-1H-pyrrolo[2,3-b]pyridinyl,4,5,6,7-tetrahydrofuro[3,2-c]pyridinyl,4,5,6,7-tetrahydrothieno[3,2-b]pyridinyl,1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-1,6-naphthyridinyl, and the like.

As used herein, “aryl” refers to a radical of a monocyclic or polycyclic(e.g., bicyclic or tricyclic) 4n+2 aromatic ring system (e.g., having 6,10, or 14 r electrons shared in a cyclic array) having 6-14 ring carbonatoms and zero heteroatoms provided in the aromatic ring system (“C₆ ₁₄aryl”). In some embodiments, an aryl group has 6 ring carbon atoms (“C₆aryl”; e.g., phenyl). In some embodiments, an aryl group has 10 ringcarbon atoms (“C ₁₀ aryl”; e.g., naphthyl such as 1-naphthyl and2-naphthyl). In some embodiments, an aryl group has 14 ring carbon atoms(“C₁₄ aryl”; e.g., anthracyl). “Aryl” also includes ring systems whereinthe aryl ring, as defined above, is fused with one or more carbocyclylor heterocyclyl groups wherein the radical or point of attachment is onthe aryl ring, and in such instances, the number of carbon atomscontinue to designate the number of carbon atoms in the aryl ringsystem. Unless otherwise specified, each instance of an aryl group isindependently unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted aryl”) or substituted (a“substituted aryl”) with one or more substituents. In certainembodiments, the aryl group is an unsubstituted C₆₋₁₄ aryl. In certainembodiments, the aryl group is a substituted C₆₋₁₄ aryl.

As used herein, “heteroaryl” refers to a radical of a 5-14 memberedmonocyclic or polycyclic (e.g., bicyclic or tricyclic) 4n+2 aromaticring system (e.g., having 6, 10, or 14 π electrons shared in a cyclicarray) having ring carbon atoms and 1-4 ring heteroatoms provided in thearomatic ring system, wherein each heteroatom is independently selectedfrom nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur (“5-14 membered heteroaryl”). Inheteroaryl groups that contain one or more nitrogen atoms, the point ofattachment can be a carbon or nitrogen atom, as valency permits.Heteroaryl polycyclic ring systems can include one or more heteroatomsin one or both rings. “Heteroaryl” includes ring systems wherein theheteroaryl ring, as defined above, is fused with one or more carbocyclylor heterocyclyl groups wherein the point of attachment is on theheteroaryl ring, and in such instances, the number of ring memberscontinue to designate the number of ring members in the heteroaryl ringsystem. “Heteroaryl” also includes ring systems wherein the heteroarylring, as defined above, is fused with one or more aryl groups whereinthe point of attachment is either on the aryl or heteroaryl ring, and insuch instances, the number of ring members designates the number of ringmembers in the fused polycyclic (aryl/heteroaryl) ring system.Polycyclic heteroaryl groups wherein one ring does not contain aheteroatom (e.g., indolyl, quinolinyl, carbazolyl, and the like) thepoint of attachment can be on either ring, i.e., either the ring bearinga heteroatom (e.g., 2-indolyl) or the ring that does not contain aheteroatom (e.g., 5-indolyl).

In some embodiments, a heteroaryl group is a 5-10 membered aromatic ringsystem having ring carbon atoms and 1-4 ring heteroatoms provided in thearomatic ring system, wherein each heteroatom is independently selectedfrom nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“5-10 membered heteroaryl”). In someembodiments, a heteroaryl group is a 5-8 membered aromatic ring systemhaving ring carbon atoms and 1-4 ring heteroatoms provided in thearomatic ring system, wherein each heteroatom is independently selectedfrom nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“5-8 membered heteroaryl”). In someembodiments, a heteroaryl group is a 5-6 membered aromatic ring systemhaving ring carbon atoms and 1-4 ring heteroatoms provided in thearomatic ring system, wherein each heteroatom is independently selectedfrom nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“5-6 membered heteroaryl”). In someembodiments, the 5-6 membered heteroaryl has 1-3 ring heteroatomsselected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, the 5-6membered heteroaryl has 1-2 ring heteroatoms selected from nitrogen,oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, the 5-6 membered heteroaryl has1 ring heteroatom selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. Unlessotherwise specified, each instance of a heteroaryl group isindependently unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted heteroaryl”) orsubstituted (a “substituted heteroaryl”) with one or more substituents.In certain embodiments, the heteroaryl group is an unsubstituted 5-14membered heteroaryl. In certain embodiments, the heteroaryl group is asubstituted 5-14 membered heteroaryl.

Exemplary 5-membered heteroaryl groups containing 1 heteroatom include,without limitation, pyrrolyl, furanyl and thiophenyl. Exemplary5-membered heteroaryl groups containing 2 heteroatoms include, withoutlimitation, imidazolyl, pyrazolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, thiazolyl, andisothiazolyl. Exemplary 5-membered heteroaryl groups containing 3heteroatoms include, without limitation, triazolyl, oxadiazolyl, andthiadiazolyl. Exemplary 5-membered heteroaryl groups containing 4heteroatoms include, without limitation, tetrazolyl. Exemplary6-membered heteroaryl groups containing 1 heteroatom include, withoutlimitation, pyridinyl. Exemplary 6-membered heteroaryl groups containing2 heteroatoms include, without limitation, pyridazinyl, pyrimidinyl, andpyrazinyl. Exemplary 6-membered heteroaryl groups containing 3 or 4heteroatoms include, without limitation, triazinyl and tetrazinyl,respectively. Exemplary 7-membered heteroaryl groups containing 1heteroatom include, without limitation, azepinyl, oxepinyl, andthiepinyl. Exemplary 5,6-bicyclic heteroaryl groups include, withoutlimitation, indolyl, isoindolyl, indazolyl, benzotriazolyl,benzothiophenyl, isobenzothiophenyl, benzofuranyl, benzoisofuranyl,benzimidazolyl, benzoxazolyl, benzisoxazolyl, benzoxadiazolyl,benzthiazolyl, benzisothiazolyl, benzthiadiazolyl, indolizinyl, andpurinyl. Exemplary 6,6-bicyclic heteroaryl groups include, withoutlimitation, naphthyridinyl, pteridinyl, quinolinyl, isoquinolinyl,cinnolinyl, quinoxalinyl, phthalazinyl, and quinazolinyl. Exemplarytricyclic heteroaryl groups include, without limitation,phenanthridinyl, dibenzofuranyl, carbazolyl, acridinyl, phenothiazinyl,phenoxazinyl and phenazinyl.

As used herein, the term “partially unsaturated” refers to a ring moietythat includes at least one double or triple bond. The term “partiallyunsaturated” is intended to encompass rings having multiple sites ofunsaturation, but is not intended to include aromatic groups (e.g., arylor heteroaryl moieties) as herein defined.

Alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroarylgroups, as defined herein, are substituted or unsubstituted, alsoreferred to herein as “optionally substituted”. In general, the term“substituted”, whether preceded by the term “optionally” or not, meansthat at least one hydrogen present on a group (e.g., a carbon ornitrogen atom) is replaced with a permissible substituent, e.g., asubstituent which upon substitution results in a stable compound, e.g.,a compound which does not spontaneously undergo transformation such asby rearrangement, cyclization, elimination, or other reaction. Unlessotherwise indicated, a “substituted” group has a substituent at one ormore substitutable positions of the group, and when more than oneposition in any given structure is substituted, the substituent iseither the same or different at each position. The term “substituted” iscontemplated to include substitution with all permissible substituentsof organic compounds, any of the substituents described herein thatresults in the formation of a stable compound. The present inventioncontemplates any and all such combinations in order to arrive at astable compound. For purposes of this invention, heteroatoms such asnitrogen may have hydrogen substituents and/or any suitable substituentas described herein which satisfy the valencies of the heteroatoms andresults in the formation of a stable moiety.

Exemplary carbon atom substituents include, but are not limited to,halogen, —CN, —NO₂, —N₃, —SO₂H, —SO₃H, —OH, —OR^(aa), —ON(R^(bb))₂,—N(R^(bb))₂, —N(R^(bb))₃ ⁺X⁻, —N(OR^(cc))R^(bb), —ScH, —ScR^(aa), —SH,—SR^(aa), —SSR^(cc), —C(═O)R^(aa), —CO₂H, —CHO, —C(OR^(cc))₂,—CO₂R^(aa), —OC(═O)R^(aa), —OCO₂R^(aa), —C(═O)N(R^(bb))₂,—OC(═O)N(R^(bb))₂, —NR^(bb)C(═O)R^(aa), —NR^(bb)CO₂R^(aa),—NR^(bb)C(═O)N(R^(bb))₂, —C(═NR^(bb))R^(aa), —C(═NR^(bb))OR^(aa),—OC(═NR^(bb))R^(aa), —OC(═NR^(bb))OR^(aa), —C(═NR^(bb))N(R^(bb))₂,—OC(═NR^(bb))N(R^(bb))₂, —NR^(bb)C(═NR^(bb))₂, —C(═O)NR^(bb)SO₂R^(aa),—NR^(bb)SO₂R^(aa), —SO₂N(R^(bb))₂, —SO₂R^(aa), —SO₂OR^(aa), —OSO₂R^(aa),—S(═O)R^(aa), —OS(═O)R^(aa), —Si(R^(aa))₃,—OSi(R^(aa))₃—C(═S)N(R^(bb))₂, —C(═O)SR^(aa), —C(═S)SR^(aa),—SC(═S)SR^(aa), —SC(═O)SR^(aa), —OC(═O)SR^(aa), —SC(═O)OR^(aa),—SC(═O)R^(aa), —P(═O)₂R^(aa), —OP(═O)₂R^(aa), —P(═O)(R^(aa))₂,—OP(═O)(R^(aa))₂, —OP(═O)(OR^(cc))₂, —P(═O)₂N(R^(bb))₂,—OP(═O)₂N(R^(bb))₂, —P(═O)(NR^(bb))₂, —OP(═O)(NR^(bb))₂,—NR^(bb)P(═O)(OR^(cc))₂, —NR^(bb)P(═O)(NR^(bb))₂, —P(R^(cc))₂,—P(R^(cc))₃, —OP(R^(cc))₂, —OP(R^(cc))₃, —B(R^(aa))₂, —B(OR^(cc))₂,—BR^(aa)(OR^(cc)), C₁₋₅₀ alkyl, C₂₋₅₀ alkenyl, C₂₋₅₀ alkynyl, C₃₋₁₀carbocyclyl, 3-14 membered heterocyclyl, C₆₋₁₄ aryl, and 5-14 memberedheteroaryl, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, carbocyclyl,heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0,1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 R^(dd) groups;

or two geminal hydrogens on a carbon atom are replaced with the group═O, ═S, ═NN(R^(bb))₂, ═NNR^(bb)C(═O)R^(aa), ═NNR^(bb)C(═O)OR^(aa),═NNR^(bb)S(═O)₂R^(aa), ═NR^(bb), or ═NOR^(cc);

each instance of R^(aa) is, independently, selected from C₁₋₅₀ alkyl,C₂₋₅₀ alkenyl, C₂₋₅₀ alkynyl, C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclyl, 3-14 memberedheterocyclyl, C₆₋₁₄ aryl, and 5-14 membered heteroaryl, or two R^(aa)groups are joined to form a 3-14 membered heterocyclyl or 5-14 memberedheteroaryl ring, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, carbocyclyl,heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0,1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 R^(dd) groups;

each instance of R^(bb) is, independently, selected from hydrogen, —OH,—OR^(aa), —N(R^(cc))₂, —CN, —C(═O)R^(aa), —C(═O)N(R^(cc))₂, —CO₂R^(aa),—SO₂R^(aa), —C(═NR^(cc))OR^(aa), —C(═NR^(cc))N(R^(cc))₂, —SO₂N(R^(cc))₂,—SO₂R^(cc), —SO₂OR^(cc), —SOR^(aa), —C(═S)N(R^(cc))₂, —C(═O)SR^(cc),—C(═S)SR^(cc), —P(═O)₂R^(aa), —P(═O)(R^(aa))₂, —P(═O)₂N(R^(cc))₂,—P(═O)(NR^(cc))₂, C₁₋₅₀ alkyl, C₂₋₅₀ alkenyl, C₂₋₅₀ alkynyl, C₃₋₁₀carbocyclyl, 3-14 membered heterocyclyl, C₆₋₁₄ aryl, and 5-14 memberedheteroaryl, or two R^(bb) groups are joined to form a 3-14 memberedheterocyclyl or 5-14 membered heteroaryl ring, wherein each alkyl,alkenyl, alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl isindependently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 R^(dd) groups;

each instance of R^(cc) is, independently, selected from hydrogen, C₁₋₅₀alkyl, C₂₋₅₀ alkenyl, C₂₋₅₀ alkynyl, C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclyl, 3-14 memberedheterocyclyl, C₆₋₁₄ aryl, and 5-14 membered heteroaryl, or two R^(cc)groups are joined to form a 3-14 membered heterocyclyl or 5-14 memberedheteroaryl ring, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, carbocyclyl,heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0,1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 R^(dd) groups;

each instance of R^(dd) is, independently, selected from halogen, —CN,—NO₂, —N₃, —SO₂H, —SO₃H, —OH, —OR^(ee), —ON(R^(ff))₂, —N(R^(ff))₂,—N(R^(ff))₃ ⁺X⁻, —N(OR^(ee))R^(ff), —SH, —SR^(ee), —SSR^(ee),—C(═O)R^(ee), —CO₂H, —CO₂R^(ee), —OC(═O)R^(ee), —OCO₂R^(ee),—C(═O)N(R^(ff))₂, —OC(═O)N(R^(ff))₂, —NR^(ff)C(═O)R^(ee),—NR^(ff)CO₂R^(ee), —NR^(ff)C(═O)N(R^(ff))₂, —C(═NR^(ff))OR^(ee),—OC(═NR^(ff))R^(ee), —OC(═NR^(ff))OR^(ee), —C(═NR^(ff))N(R^(ff))₂,—OC(═NR^(ff))N(R^(ff))₂, —NR^(ff)C(═NR^(ff))N(R^(ff))₂,—NR^(ff)SO₂R^(ee), —SO₂N(R^(ff))₂, —SO₂R^(ee), —SO₂OR^(ee), —OSO₂R^(ee),—S(═O)R^(ee), —Si(R^(ee))₃, —OSi(R^(ee))₃, —C(═S)N(R^(ff))₂,—C(═O)SR^(ee), —C(═S)SR^(ee), —SC(═S)SR^(ee), —P(═O)₂R^(ee),—P(═O)(R^(ee))₂, —OP(═O)(R^(ee))₂, —OP(═O)(OR^(ee))₂, C₁₋₅₀ alkyl, C₂₋₅₀alkenyl, C₂₋₅₀ alkynyl, C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclyl, 3-10 membered heterocyclyl,C₆₋₁₀ aryl, 5-10 membered heteroaryl, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl,alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl isindependently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 R^(gg) groups, or twogeminal R^(dd) substituents can be joined to form ═O or ═S;

each instance of R^(ee) is, independently, selected from C₁₋₅₀ alkyl,C₂₋₅₀ alkenyl, C₂₋₅₀ alkynyl, C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclyl, C₆₋₁₀ aryl, 3-10membered heterocyclyl, and 3-10 membered heteroaryl, wherein each alkyl,alkenyl, alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl isindependently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 R^(gg) groups;

each instance of R^(ff) is, independently, selected from hydrogen, C₁₋₅₀alkyl, C₂₋₅₀ alkenyl, C₂₋₅₀ alkynyl, C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclyl, 3-10 memberedheterocyclyl, C₆₋₁₀ aryl and 5-10 membered heteroaryl, or two R^(ff)groups are joined to form a 3-14 membered heterocyclyl or 5-14 memberedheteroaryl ring, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, carbocyclyl,heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0,1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 R^(gg) groups; and

each instance of R^(gg) is, independently, halogen, —CN, —NO₂, —N₃,—SO₂H, —SO₃H, —OH, —OC₁₋₅₀ alkyl, —ON(C₁₋₅₀ alkyl)₂, —N(C₁₋₅₀ alkyl)₂,—N(C₁₋₅₀ alkyl)₃ ⁺X⁻, —NH(C₁₋₅₀ alkyl)₂ ⁺X⁻, —NH₂(C₁₋₅₀ alkyl)⁺X⁻, —NH₃⁺X⁻, —N(OC₁₋₅₀ alkyl)(C₁₋₅₀ alkyl), —N(OH)(C₁₋₅₀ alkyl), —NH(OH), —SH,—SC₁₋₅₀ alkyl, —SS(C₁₋₅₀ alkyl), —C(═O)(C₁₋₅₀ alkyl), —CO₂H, —CO₂(C₁₋₅₀alkyl), —OC(═O)(C₁₋₅₀ alkyl), —OCO₂(C₁₋₅₀ alkyl), —C(═O)NH₂,—C(═O)N(C₁₋₅₀ alkyl)₂, —OC(═O)NH(C₁₋₅₀ alkyl), —NHC(═O)(C₁₋₅₀ alkyl),—N(C₁₋₅₀ alkyl)C(═O)(C₁₋₅₀ alkyl), —NHCO₂(C₁₋₅₀ alkyl), —NHC(═O)N(C₁₋₅₀alkyl)₂, —NHC(═O)NH(C₁₋₅₀ alkyl), —NHC(═O)NH₂, —C(═NH)O(C₁₋₅₀alkyl),—OC(═NH)(C₁₋₅₀ alkyl), —OC(═NH)OC₁₋₅₀ alkyl, —C(═NH)N(C₁₋₅₀alkyl)₂, —C(═NH)NH(C₁₋₅₀ alkyl), —C(═NH)NH₂, —OC(═NH)N(C₁₋₅₀ alkyl)₂,—OC(NH)NH(C₁₋₅₀ alkyl), —OC(NH)NH₂, —NHC(NH)N(C₁₋₅₀ alkyl)₂,—NHC(═NH)NH₂, —NHSO₂(C₁₋₅₀ alkyl), —SO₂N(C₁₋₅₀ alkyl)₂, —SO₂NH(C₁₋₅₀alkyl), —SO₂NH₂, —SO₂C₁₋₅₀ alkyl, —SO₂OC₁₋₅₀ alkyl, —OSO₂C₁₋₆ alkyl,—SOC₁₋₆ alkyl, —Si(C₁₋₅₀ alkyl)₃, —OSi(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₃—C(═S)N(C₁₋₅₀alkyl)₂, C(═S)NH(C₁₋₅₀ alkyl), C(═S)NH₂, —C(═O)S(C₁₋₆ alkyl),—C(═S)SC₁₋₆ alkyl, —SC(═S)SC₁₋₆ alkyl, —P(═O)₂(C₁₋₅₀ alkyl),—P(═O)(C₁₋₅₀ alkyl)₂, —OP(═O)(C₁₋₅₀ alkyl)₂, —OP(═O)(OC₁₋₅₀ alkyl)₂,C₁₋₅₀ alkyl, C₂ ₅₀ alkenyl, C₂ ₅₀ alkynyl, C₃ ₁₀ carbocyclyl, C₆ ₁₀aryl, 3-10 membered heterocyclyl, 5-10 membered heteroaryl; or twogeminal R^(gg) substituents can be joined to form ═O or ═S;

wherein X⁻ is a counteranion.

As used herein, the term “halo” or “halogen” refers to fluorine (fluoro,—F), chlorine (chloro, —Cl), bromine (bromo, —Br), or iodine (iodo, —I).

As used herein, a “counteranion” or “counter anion” is a negativelycharged group associated with a positively charged quarternary amine.Exemplary counteranions include halide ions (e.g., F⁻, Cl⁻, Br⁻, I⁻),NO₃ ⁻, ClO₄ ⁻, OH⁻, H₂PO₄ ⁻, HSO₄ ⁻, sulfonate ions (e.g.,methansulfonate, trifluoromethanesulfonate, p-toluenesulfonate,benzenesulfonate, 10-camphor sulfonate, naphthalene-2-sulfonate,naphthalene-1-sulfonic acid-5-sulfonate, ethan-1-sulfonicacid-2-sulfonate), and carboxylate ions (e.g., acetate, ethanoate,propanoate, benzoate, glycerate, lactate, tartrate, glycolate).

Nitrogen atoms can be substituted or unsubstituted as valency permits,and include primary, secondary, tertiary, and quarternary nitrogenatoms. Exemplary nitrogen atom substitutents include, but are notlimited to, hydrogen, —OH, —OR^(aa), —N(R^(cc))₂, —CN, —C(═O)R^(aa),—C(═O)N(R^(cc))₂, —CO₂R^(aa), —SO₂R^(aa), —C(═NR^(bb))R^(aa),—C(═NR^(cc))OR^(aa), —C(═NR^(cc))N(R^(cc))₂, —SO₂N(R^(cc))₂, —SO₂R^(cc),—SO₂OR^(cc), —SOR^(aa), —C(═S)N(R^(cc))₂, —C(═O)SR^(cc), —C(═S)SR^(cc),—P(═O)₂R^(aa), —P(═O)(R^(aa))₂, —P(═O)₂N(R^(cc))₂, —P(═O)(NR^(cc))₂,C₁₋₁₀ alkyl, C₁₋₁₀ perhaloalkyl, C₂₋₁₀ alkenyl, C₂₋₁₀ alkynyl, C₃₋₁₀carbocyclyl, 3-14 membered heterocyclyl, C₆₋₁₄ aryl, and 5-14 memberedheteroaryl, or two R^(cc) groups attached to a nitrogen atom are joinedto form a 3-14 membered heterocyclyl or 5-14 membered heteroaryl ring,wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl,and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5R^(dd) groups, and wherein R^(aa), R^(bb), R^(cc) and R^(dd) are asdefined above.

In certain embodiments, the substituent present on a nitrogen atom is anamino protecting group, also referred to herein as a nitrogen protectinggroup. Amino protecting groups are well known in the art and includethose described in detail in Protecting Groups in Organic Synthesis, T.W. Greene and P. G. M. Wuts, 3^(rd) edition, John Wiley & Sons, 1999,incorporated herein by reference.

Nitrogen protecting groups such as amide groups (e.g., —C(═O)R^(aa))include, but are not limited to, formamide, acetamide, chloroacetamide,trichloroacetamide, trifluoroacetamide, phenylacetamide,3-phenylpropanamide, picolinamide, 3-pyridylcarboxamide,N-benzoylphenylalanyl derivative, benzamide, p-phenylbenzamide,o-nitophenylacetamide, o-nitrophenoxyacetamide, acetoacetamide,(N′-dithiobenzyloxyacylamino)acetamide, 3-(p-hydroxyphenyl)propanamide,3-(o-nitrophenyl)propanamide, 2-methyl-2-(o-nitrophenoxy)propanamide,2-methyl-2-(o-phenylazophenoxy)propanamide, 4-chlorobutanamide,3-methyl-3-nitrobutanamide, o-nitrocinnamide, N-acetylmethioninederivative, o-nitrobenzamide and o-(benzoyloxymethyl)benzamide.

Nitrogen protecting groups such as carbamate groups (e.g.,—C(═O)OR^(aa)) include, but are not limited to, methyl carbamate, ethylcarbamante, 9-fluorenylmethyl carbamate (Fmoc),9-(2-sulfo)fluorenylmethyl carbamate, 9-(2,7-dibromo)fluoroenylmethylcarbamate,2,7-di-t-butyl-[9-(10,10-dioxo-10,10,10,10-tetrahydrothioxanthyl)]methylcarbamate (DBD-Tmoc), 4-methoxyphenacyl carbamate (Phenoc),2,2,2-trichloroethyl carbamate (Troc), 2-trimethylsilylethyl carbamate(Teoc), 2-phenylethyl carbamate (hZ), 1-(1-adamantyl)-1-methylethylcarbamate (Adpoc), 1,1-dimethyl-2-haloethyl carbamate,1,1-dimethyl-2,2-dibromoethyl carbamate (DB-t-BOC),1,1-dimethyl-2,2,2-trichloroethyl carbamate (TCBOC),1-methyl-1-(4-biphenylyl)ethyl carbamate (Bpoc),1-(3,5-di-t-butylphenyl)-1-methylethyl carbamate (t-Bumeoc), 2-(2′- and4′-pyridyl)ethyl carbamate (Pyoc), 2-(N,N-dicyclohexylcarboxamido)ethylcarbamate, t-butyl carbamate (BOC), 1-adamantyl carbamate (Adoc), vinylcarbamate (Voc), allyl carbamate (Alloc), 1-isopropylallyl carbamate(Ipaoc), cinnamyl carbamate (Coc), 4-nitrocinnamyl carbamate (Noc),8-quinolyl carbamate, N-hydroxypiperidinyl carbamate, alkyldithiocarbamate, benzyl carbamate (Cbz), p-methoxybenzyl carbamate (Moz),p-nitobenzyl carbamate, p-bromobenzyl carbamate, p-chlorobenzylcarbamate, 2,4-dichlorobenzyl carbamate, 4-methylsulfinylbenzylcarbamate (Msz), 9-anthrylmethyl carbamate, diphenylmethyl carbamate,2-methylthioethyl carbamate, 2-methylsulfonylethyl carbamate,2-(p-toluenesulfonyl)ethyl carbamate, [2-(1,3-dithianyl]methyl carbamate(Dmoc), 4-methylthiophenyl carbamate (Mtpc), 2,4-dimethylthiophenylcarbamate (Bmpc), 2-phosphonioethyl carbamate (Peoc),2-triphenylphosphonioisopropyl carbamate (Ppoc),1,1-dimethyl-2-cyanoethyl carbamate, m-chloro-p-acyloxybenzyl carbamate,p-(dihydroxyboryl)benzyl carbamate, 5-benzisoxazolylmethyl carbamate,2-(trifluoromethyl)-6-chromonylmethyl carbamate (Tcroc), m-nitrophenylcarbamate, 3,5-dimethoxybenzyl carbamate, o-nitrobenzyl carbamate,3,4-dimethoxy-6-nitrobenzyl carbamate, phenyl(o-nitrophenyl)methylcarbamate, t-amyl carbamate, S-benzyl thiocarbamate, p-cyanobenzylcarbamate, cyclobutyl carbamate, cyclohexyl carbamate, cyclopentylcarbamate, cyclopropylmethyl carbamate, p-decyloxybenzyl carbamate,2,2-dimethoxyacylvinyl carbamate, o-(N,N-dimethylcarboxamido)benzylcarbamate, 1,1-dimethyl-3-(N,N-dimethylcarboxamido)propyl carbamate,1,1-dimethylpropynyl carbamate, di(2-pyridyl)methyl carbamate,2-furanylmethyl carbamate, 2-iodoethyl carbamate, isoborynl carbamate,isobutyl carbamate, isonicotinyl carbamate,p-(p′-methoxyphenylazo)benzyl carbamate, 1-methylcyclobutyl carbamate,1-methylcyclohexyl carbamate, 1-methyl-1-cyclopropylmethyl carbamate,1-methyl-1-(3,5-dimethoxyphenyl)ethyl carbamate,1-methyl-1-(p-phenylazophenyl)ethyl carbamate, 1-methyl-1-phenylethylcarbamate, 1-methyl-1-(4-pyridyl)ethyl carbamate, phenyl carbamate,p-(phenylazo)benzyl carbamate, 2,4,6-tri-t-butylphenyl carbamate,4-(trimethylammonium)benzyl carbamate, and 2,4,6-trimethylbenzylcarbamate.

Nitrogen protecting groups such as sulfonamide groups (e.g.,S(═O)₂R^(aa)) include, but are not limited to, p-toluenesulfonamide(Ts), benzenesulfonamide, 2,3,6,-trimethyl-4-methoxybenzenesulfonamide(Mtr), 2,4,6-trimethoxybenzenesulfonamide (Mtb),2,6-dimethyl-4-methoxybenzenesulfonamide (Pme),2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-4-methoxybenzenesulfonamide (Mte),4-methoxybenzenesulfonamide (Mbs), 2,4,6-trimethylbenzenesulfonamide(Mts), 2,6-dimethoxy-4-methylbenzenesulfonamide (iMds),2,2,5,7,8-pentamethylchroman-6-sulfonamide (Pmc), methanesulfonamide(Ms), β-trimethylsilylethanesulfonamide (SES), 9-anthracenesulfonamide,4-(4′,8′-dimethoxynaphthylmethyl)benzenesulfonamide (DNMBS),benzylsulfonamide, trifluoromethylsulfonamide, and phenacylsulfonamide.

Other nitrogen protecting groups include, but are not limited to,phenothiazinyl-(10)-acyl derivative, N′-p-toluenesulfonylaminoacylderivative, N′-phenylaminothioacyl derivative, N-benzoylphenylalanylderivative, N-acetylmethionine derivative,4,5-diphenyl-3-oxazolin-2-one, N-phthalimide, N-dithiasuccinimide (Dts),N-2,3-diphenylmaleimide, N-2,5-dimethylpyrrole,N-1,1,4,4-tetramethyldisilylazacyclopentane adduct (STABASE),5-substituted 1,3-dimethyl-1,3,5-triazacyclohexan-2-one, 5-substituted1,3-dibenzyl-1,3,5-triazacyclohexan-2-one, 1-substituted3,5-dinitro-4-pyridone, N-methylamine, N-allylamine,N-[2-(trimethylsilyl)ethoxy]methylamine (SEM), N-3-acetoxypropylamine,N(1-isopropyl-4-nitro-2-oxo-3-pyroolin-3-yl)amine, quaternary ammoniumsalts, N-benzylamine, N-di(4-methoxyphenyl)methylamine,N-5-dibenzosuberylamine, N-triphenylmethylamine (Tr),N-[(4-methoxyphenyl)diphenylmethyl]amine (MMTr),N-9-phenylfluorenylamine (PhF),N-2,7-dichloro-9-fluorenylmethyleneamine, N-ferrocenylmethylamino (Fcm),N-2-picolylamino N′-oxide, N-1,1-dimethylthiomethyleneamine,N-benzylideneamine, N-p-methoxybenzylideneamine,N-diphenylmethyleneamine, N-[(2-pyridyl)mesityl]methyleneamine,N-(N′,N′-dimethylaminomethylene)amine, N,N′-isopropylidenediamine,N-p-nitrobenzylideneamine, N-salicylideneamine,N-5-chlorosalicylideneamine,N-(5-chloro-2-hydroxyphenyl)phenylmethyleneamine,N-cyclohexylideneamine, N-(5,5-dimethyl-3-oxolcyclohexenyl)amine,N-borane derivative, N-diphenylborinic acid derivative,N-[phenyl(pentaacylchromium- or tungsten)acyl]amine, N-copper chelate,N-zinc chelate, N-nitroamine, N-nitrosoamine, amine N-oxide,diphenylphosphinamide (Dpp), dimethylthiophosphinamide (Mpt),diphenylthiophosphinamide (Ppt), dialkyl phosphoramidates, dibenzylphosphoramidate, diphenyl phosphoramidate, benzenesulfenamide,o-nitrobenzenesulfenamide (Nps), 2,4-dinitrobenzenesulfenamide,pentachlorobenzenesulfenamide, 2-nitro-4-methoxybenzenesulfenamide,triphenylmethylsulfenamide, and 3-nitropyridinesulfenamide (Npys).

In certain embodiments, the substituent present on an oxygen atom is anoxygen protecting group. Oxygen protecting groups include, but are notlimited to, R^(aa), C(═O)SR^(aa), —C(═O)R^(aa) (“acyl”), —CO₂R^(aa),—C(═O)N(R^(bb))₂, —C(═NR^(bb))R^(aa), —C(═NR^(bb))OR^(aa),—C(═NR^(bb))N(R^(bb))₂, and —Si(R^(aa))₃, wherein R^(aa), R^(bb), andR^(cc) are as defined herein. Hydroxyl protecting groups are well knownin the art and include those described in detail in Protecting Groups inOrganic Synthesis, T. W. Greene and P. G. M. Wuts, 3^(rd) edition, JohnWiley & Sons, 1999, incorporated herein by reference.

Exemplary oxygen protecting groups include, but are not limited to,methyl, methoxylmethyl (MOM), methylthiomethyl (MTM), t-butylthiomethyl,(phenyldimethylsilyl)methoxymethyl (SMOM), benzyloxymethyl (BOM),p-methoxybenzyloxymethyl (PMBM), (4-methoxyphenoxy)methyl (p-AOM),guaiacolmethyl (GUM), t-butoxymethyl, 4-pentenyloxymethyl (POM),siloxymethyl, 2-methoxyethoxymethyl (MEM), 2,2,2-trichloroethoxymethyl,bis(2-chloroethoxy)methyl, 2-(trimethylsilyl)ethoxymethyl (SEMOR),tetrahydropyranyl (THP), 3-bromotetrahydropyranyl,tetrahydrothiopyranyl, 1-methoxycyclohexyl, 4-methoxytetrahydropyranyl(MTHP), 4-methoxytetrahydrothiopyranyl, 4-methoxytetrahydrothiopyranylS,S-dioxide, 1-[(2-chloro-4-methyl)phenyl]-4-methoxypiperidin-4yl-(CTMP), 1,4-dioxan-2-yl, tetrahydrofuranyl, tetrahydrothiofuranyl,2,3,3a,4,5,6,7,7a-octahydro-7,8,8-trimethyl-4,7-methanobenzofuran-2-yl,1-ethoxyethyl, 1-(2-chloroethoxy)ethyl, 1-methyllmethoxyethyl,1-methyl-1-benzyloxyethyl, 1-methyl-1-benzyloxy-2-fluoroethyl,2,2,2-trichloroethyl, 2-trimethylsilylethyl, 2-(phenylselenyl)ethyl,t-butyl, allyl, p-chlorophenyl, p-methoxyphenyl, 2,4-dinitrophenyl,benzyl (Bn), p-methoxybenzyl, 3,4-dimethoxybenzyl, o-nitrobenzyl,p-nitrobenzyl, p-halobenzyl, 2,6-dichlorobenzyl, p-cyanobenzyl,p-phenylbenzyl, 2-picolyl, 4-picolyl, 3-methyl-2-picolyl N-oxido,diphenylmethyl, p,p′-dinitrobenzhydryl, 5-dibenzosuberyl,triphenylmethyl, α-naphthyldiphenylmethyl,p-methoxyphenyldiphenylmethyl, di(p-methoxyphenyl)phenylmethyl,tri(p-methoxyphenyl)methyl, 4-(4′-bromophenacyloxyphenyl)diphenylmethyl,4,4′,4″-tris(4,5-dichlorophthalimidophenyl)methyl,4,4′,4″-tris(levulinoyloxyphenyl)methyl,4,4′,4″-tris(benzoyloxyphenyl)methyl,3-(imidazol-1-yl)bis(4′,4″-dimethoxyphenyl)methyl,1,1-bis(4-methoxyphenyl)-1′-pyrenylmethyl, 9-anthryl,9-(9-phenyl)xanthenyl, 9-(9-phenyl-10-oxo)anthryl,1,3-benzodisulfuran-2-yl, benzisothiazolyl S,S-dioxido, trimethylsilyl(TMS), triethylsilyl (TES), triisopropylsilyl (TIPS),dimethylisopropylsilyl (IPDMS), diethylisopropylsilyl (DEIPS),dimethylthexylsilyl, t-butyldimethylsilyl (TBDMS), t-butyldiphenylsilyl(TBDPS), tribenzylsilyl, tri-p-xylylsilyl, triphenylsilyl,diphenylmethylsilyl (DPMS), t-butylmethoxyphenylsilyl (TBMPS), formate,benzoylformate, acetate, chloroacetate, dichloroacetate,trichloroacetate, trifluoroacetate, methoxyacetate,triphenylmethoxyacetate, phenoxyacetate, p-chlorophenoxyacetate,3-phenylpropionate, 4-oxopentanoate (levulinate),4,4-(ethylenedithio)pentanoate (levulinoyldithioacetal), pivaloate,adamantoate, crotonate, 4-methoxycrotonate, benzoate, p-phenylbenzoate,2,4,6trimethylbenzoate (mesitoate), alkyl methyl carbonate,9-fluorenylmethyl carbonate (Fmoc), alkyl ethyl carbonate, alkyl2,2,2-trichloroethyl carbonate (Troc), 2-(trimethylsilyl)ethyl carbonate(TMSEC), 2-(phenylsulfonyl) ethyl carbonate (Psec),2-(triphenylphosphonio) ethyl carbonate (Peoc), alkyl isobutylcarbonate, alkyl vinyl carbonate alkyl allyl carbonate, alkylp-nitrophenyl carbonate, alkyl benzyl carbonate, alkyl p-methoxybenzylcarbonate, alkyl 3,4-dimethoxybenzyl carbonate, alkyl o-nitrobenzylcarbonate, alkyl p-nitrobenzyl carbonate, alkyl S-benzyl thiocarbonate,4-ethoxy-1-napththyl carbonate, methyl dithiocarbonate, 2-iodobenzoate,4-azidobutyrate, 4-nitro-4-methylpentanoate, o-(dibromomethyl)benzoate,2-formylbenzenesulfonate, 2-(methylthiomethoxy)ethyl,4-(methylthiomethoxy)butyrate, 2-(methylthiomethoxymethyl)benzoate,2,6-dichloro-4-methylphenoxyacetate,2,6-dichloro-4-(1,1,3,3-tetramethylbutyl)phenoxyacetate,2,4-bis(1,1-dimethylpropyl)phenoxyacetate, chlorodiphenylacetate,isobutyrate, monosuccinoate, (E)-2-methyl-2-butenoate,o-(methoxyacyl)benzoate, α-naphthoate, nitrate, alkylN,N,N′,N′-tetramethylphosphorodiamidate, alkyl N-phenylcarbamate,borate, dimethylphosphinothioyl, alkyl 2,4-dinitrophenylsulfenate,sulfate, methanesulfonate (mesylate), benzylsulfonate, and tosylate(Ts).

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF CERTAIN EMBODIMENTS OF THE INVENTION

As previously described herein, the present invention provides newlabeling reagents for the trapping and detection of reactive metabolitesof drug and drug candidates. Such reagents may be useful in methods fordetecting a reactive metabolite in a sample, e.g., wherein themetabolite is present in the sample or is generated from the metabolismof a test compound, and wherein the metabolite and a reagent of Formula(I) or (II) react to form a detectable adduct, e.g., detectable by massspectrometry. The present invention is further envisioned useful forconfirming that a reactive metabolite is not present in a sample, e.g.,wherein no adduct is detected.

Thus, in one aspect, provided is a compound of Formula (I), which may beused as a labeling reagent when R³ is hydrogen:

wherein:

each instance of R¹ and R² is independently hydrogen, substituted orunsubstituted alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted alkenyl, substitutedor unsubstituted alkynyl, substituted or unsubstituted carbocyclyl,substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclyl, substituted or unsubstitutedaryl, substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, —C(═O)R^(A),—C(═O)OR^(A), —C(═O)N(R^(A))₂, or an amino protecting group, or R¹ andR² are joined to form a substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclic ring;

each instance of R^(A) is independently hydrogen, substituted orunsubstituted alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted alkenyl, substitutedor unsubstituted alkynyl, substituted or unsubstituted carbocyclyl,substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclyl, substituted or unsubstitutedaryl, substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, an oxygen protectinggroup when attached to an oxygen atom, or a nitrogen protecting groupwhen attached to a nitrogen atom, or two R^(A) groups are joined to forma substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclic ring;

R³ is hydrogen or a sulfur protecting group;

each instance of R⁴ is independently substituted or unsubstituted alkyl,substituted or unsubstituted alkenyl, substituted or unsubstitutedalkynyl, substituted or unsubstituted carbocyclyl, substituted orunsubstituted heterocyclyl, substituted or unsubstituted aryl,substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, or an amino protecting group,or two R⁴ groups are joined to form a substituted or unsubstitutedheterocyclic ring;

n is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6; and

X⁻ is a counter anion.

Additionally, in another aspect, provided is a compound of Formula (II),which may be used as a labeling reagent when R³ is hydrogen:

wherein:

each instance of R¹ and R² is independently hydrogen, substituted orunsubstituted alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted alkenyl, substitutedor unsubstituted alkynyl, substituted or unsubstituted carbocyclyl,substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclyl, substituted or unsubstitutedaryl, substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, —C(═O)R^(A),—C(═O)OR^(A), —C(═O)N(R^(A))₂, or an amino protecting group, or R¹ andR² are joined to form a substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclic ring;

each instance of R^(A) is independently hydrogen, substituted orunsubstituted alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted alkenyl, substitutedor unsubstituted alkynyl, substituted or unsubstituted carbocyclyl,substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclyl, substituted or unsubstitutedaryl, substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, an oxygen protectinggroup when attached to an oxygen atom, or a nitrogen protecting groupwhen attached to a nitrogen atom, or two R^(A) groups are joined to forma substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclic ring;

R³ is hydrogen or a sulfur protecting group;

R⁵ _(and) R⁶ are independently selected from —OR^(B), —N(R^(B))₂, and agroup of Formula (i):

provided at least one of R⁵ and R⁶ is a group of formula (i);

each instance of R^(B) is independently hydrogen, substituted orunsubstituted alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted alkenyl, substitutedor unsubstituted alkynyl, substituted or unsubstituted carbocyclyl,substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclyl, substituted or unsubstitutedaryl, substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, an oxygen protectinggroup when attached to an oxygen atom, or a nitrogen protecting groupwhen attached to a nitrogen atom, or two R^(B) groups are joined to forma substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclic ring;

each instance of R⁴ is independently substituted or unsubstituted alkyl,substituted or unsubstituted alkenyl, substituted or unsubstitutedalkynyl, substituted or unsubstituted carbocyclyl, substituted orunsubstituted heterocyclyl, substituted or unsubstituted aryl,substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, or an amino protecting group,or two R⁴ groups are joined to form a substituted or unsubstitutedheterocyclic ring;

n is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6; and

X⁻ is a counter anion.

As generally described above, provided are compounds of Formula (I) or(II), which may be useful, in certain embodiments, as labeling reagentswherein R³ is hydrogen. The present invention also contemplatesprotected forms of these compounds, e.g., corresponding syntheticintermediates, wherein R³ is a sulfur protecting group.

In certain embodiments, R¹ is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R¹ issubstituted or unsubstituted alkyl, e.g., —CH₃, or substituted orunsubstituted aralkyl. In certain embodiments, R¹ is substituted orunsubstituted alkenyl, e.g., allyl. In certain embodiments, R¹ issubstituted or unsubstituted alkynyl, e.g., propynyl. In certainembodiments, R¹ is substituted or unsubstituted carbocyclyl. In certainembodiments, R¹ is substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclyl. In certainembodiments, R¹ is substituted or unsubstituted aryl. In certainembodiments, R¹ is substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl. In certainembodiments, R¹ is —C(═O)R^(A). In certain embodiments, R¹ is—C(═O)OR^(A). In certain embodiments, R¹ is —C(═O)N(R^(A))₂. In certainembodiments, R¹ is an amino protecting group.

In certain embodiments, R² is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R² issubstituted or unsubstituted alkyl, e.g., —CH₃, or substituted orunsubstituted aralkyl. In certain embodiments, R² is substituted orunsubstituted alkenyl, e.g., allyl. In certain embodiments, R² issubstituted or unsubstituted alkynyl, e.g., propynyl. In certainembodiments, R² is substituted or unsubstituted carbocyclyl. In certainembodiments, R² is substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclyl. In certainembodiments, R² is substituted or unsubstituted aryl. In certainembodiments, R² is substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl. In certainembodiments, R² is —C(═O)R^(A). In certain embodiments, R² is—C(═O)OR^(A). In certain embodiments, R² is —C(═O)N(R^(A))₂. In certainembodiments, R² is an amino protecting group.

In certain embodiments, R¹ and R² are joined to form a substituted orunsubstituted heterocyclic ring, e.g., for example, a substituted orunsubstituted pyrrolidinyl, piperidinyl, piperazinyl, or morpholinylring.

Alternatively, R¹ and R² may be joined to form a substituted orunsubstituted heteroaryl ring, e.g., a 5- to 6-membered heteroaryl ring.

In certain embodiments, R¹ is hydrogen, and R² is hydrogen, —C(═O)R^(A),—C(═O)OR^(A), —C(═O)N(R^(A))₂, or an amino protecting group. In certainembodiments, R¹ is hydrogen and R² is —C(═O)R^(A), —C(═O)OR^(A), or—C(═O)N(R^(A))₂. In certain embodiments, R¹ is hydrogen and R² is—C(═O)R^(A). In certain embodiments, R¹ is hydrogen and R² is—C(═O)OR^(A). In certain embodiments, R¹ is hydrogen and R² is—C(═O)N(R^(A))₂. In certain embodiments, R¹ is hydrogen and R² ishydrogen.

In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R^(A) is hydrogen. Incertain embodiments, at least one instance of R^(A) is substituted orunsubstituted alkyl, e.g., —CH₃, or substituted or unsubstitutedaralkyl. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R^(A) issubstituted or unsubstituted alkenyl, e.g., allyl. In certainembodiments, at least one instance of R^(A) is substituted orunsubstituted alkynyl, e.g., propynyl. In certain embodiments, at leastone instance of R^(A) is substituted or unsubstituted carbocyclyl. Incertain embodiments, at least one instance of R^(A) is substituted orunsubstituted heterocyclyl. In certain embodiments, at least oneinstance of R^(A) is substituted or unsubstituted aryl. In certainembodiments, at least one instance of R^(A) is substituted orunsubstituted heteroaryl. In certain embodiments, R^(A) is an oxygenprotecting group. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R^(A)is a nitrogen protecting group.

In certain embodiments, wherein two R^(A) groups are attached to an Natom, the two R^(A) groups are joined to form a substituted orunsubstituted heterocyclic ring, e.g., for example, a substituted orunsubstituted pyrrolidinyl, piperidinyl, piperazinyl, or morpholinylring.

Alternatively, two R^(A) groups may be joined to form a substituted orunsubstituted heteroaryl ring, e.g., a 5- to 6-membered heteroaryl ring.

In certain embodiments, at least one R^(A) is CH₃, e.g., to provide agroup of formula —C(═O)CH₃, —C(═O)OCH₃, or —C(═O)NHCH₃. In certainembodiments, R¹ is hydrogen and R² is —C(═O)CH₃, —C(═O)OCH₃, or—C(═O)NHCH₃. In certain embodiments, R¹ is hydrogen and R² is —C(═O)CH₃.In certain embodiments, R¹ is hydrogen and R² is —C(═O)OCH₃. In certainembodiments, R¹ is hydrogen and R² is —C(═O)NHCH₃.

In certain embodiments, at least one R^(A) is substituted orunsubstituted aryl or substituted or unsubstituted aralkyl. In thisinstance, in certain embodiments, at least one R^(A) is a group ofFormula (a):

wherein:

p is 0, to provide a substituted or unsubstituted aryl; or

p is 1 or 2, to provide a substituted or unsubstituted aralkyl;

m is 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; and

each instance of R⁷ is independently halogen, substituted orunsubstituted alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted alkenyl, substitutedor unsubstituted alkynyl, substituted or unsubstituted carbocyclyl,substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclyl, substituted or unsubstitutedaryl, substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl.

For example, in certain embodiments, R¹ is hydrogen and R² is—C(═O)R^(A), —C(═O)OR^(A), or —C(═O)N(R^(A))₂, wherein R^(A) is a groupof Formula (a). In certain embodiments, R¹ is hydrogen and R² is—C(═O)R^(A), wherein R^(A) is a group of Formula (a). In certainembodiments, R¹ is hydrogen and R² is —C(═O)OR^(A), wherein R^(A) is agroup of Formula (a). In certain embodiments, R¹ is hydrogen and R² is—C(═O)NH(R^(A)), wherein R^(A) is a group of Formula (a).

In certain embodiments, p is 0. In certain embodiments, p is 1 or 2. Incertain embodiments, p is 1. In certain embodiments, p is 2.

In certain embodiments, each instance of R⁷ is independently halogen,e.g., selected from the group consisting of fluoro, bromo, iodo, andchloro. In certain embodiments, each instance of R⁷ is independentlyselected from the group consisting of bromo and fluoro. In certainembodiments, each instance of R⁷ is bromo. In certain embodiments, eachinstance of R⁷ is fluoro.

Various mono-, di-, tri-, and tetra-substituted Formula (a) groups arecontemplated. For example, in certain embodiments, wherein m is 1, thegroup of Formula (a) is an ortho, meta, or para substituted group of theformulae:

In certain embodiments, wherein m is 2, the group of Formula (a) is adisubstituted group of any one of the Formula:

In certain embodiments, wherein m is 3, the group of Formula (a) is atrisubstituted group of any one of the Formula:

In certain embodiments, wherein m is 4, the group of Formula (a) is atetrasubstituted group of any one of the Formula:

In certain embodiments, wherein m is 5, the group of Formula (a) is thepentasubstituted group:

In certain embodiments, m is 1 and R⁷ is bromo. In certain embodiments,R⁷ is an ortho-bromo group.

In certain embodiments, m is 5 and R⁷ is fluoro.

In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R⁴ is substituted orunsubstituted alkyl, e.g., —CH₃, substituted or unsubstituted aralkyl.In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R⁴ is substituted orunsubstituted alkenyl, e.g., allyl. In certain embodiments, at least oneinstance of R⁴ is substituted or unsubstituted alkynyl, e.g., propynyl.In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R⁴ is substituted orunsubstituted carbocyclyl. In certain embodiments, at least one instanceof R⁴ is substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclyl. In certainembodiments, at least one instance of R⁴ is substituted or unsubstitutedaryl. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R⁴ is substitutedor unsubstituted heteroaryl. In certain embodiments, at least oneinstance of R⁴ is an amino protecting group.

In certain embodiments, two instances of R⁴ is the same. In certainembodiments, each instance of R⁴ is the same. In certain embodiments,each instance of R⁴ is different.

In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R⁴ is substituted orunsubstituted alkyl, e.g., substituted or unsubstituted C₁, C₂, C₃, C₄,C₅, C₆, C₁₋₆, C₁₋₅, C₁₋₄, C₁₋₃, C₁₋₂, C₂₋₆, C₂₋₅, C₂₋₄, C₂₋₃, C₃₋₆,C₃₋₅, C₃₋₄, C₄₋₆, C₄₋₅, or C₅₋₆ alkyl. In certain embodiments, eachinstance of R⁴ is substituted or unsubstituted C₁ alkyl, e.g., —CH₃. Incertain embodiments, each instance of R⁴ is —CH₃.

In certain embodiments, two R⁴ groups are joined to form a substitutedor unsubstituted heterocyclic ring, e.g., for example, a substituted orunsubstituted pyrrolidinyl, piperidinyl, piperazinyl, or morpholinylring.

Alternatively, one R⁴ group is absent, and the other two R⁴ groups maybe joined to form a substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl ring, e.g.,a 5- to 6-membered heteroaryl ring.

In certain embodiments, n is 1. In certain embodiments, n is 2, Incertain embodiments, n is 3. In certain embodiments, n is 4. In certainembodiments, n is 5. In certain embodiments, n is or 6.

As used herein, a “counter anion” or “anion” is a negatively chargedgroup associated with the positively charged quarternary amine.Exemplary counteranions include halide ions (e.g., fluoride, chloride,bromide, iodide), NO₃ ⁻, ClO₄ ⁻, OH⁻, H₂PO₄ ⁻, HSO₄ ⁻, sulfonate ions(e.g., methansulfonate, trifluoromethanesulfonate, p-toluenesulfonate,benzenesulfonate, 10-camphor sulfonate, naphthalene-2-sulfonate,naphthalenelsulfonic acid-5-sulfonate, ethan-1-sulfonicacid-2-sulfonate), and carboxylate ions (e.g., acetate, ethanoate,propanoate, benzoate, glycerate, lactate, tartrate, glycolate). Incertain embodiments, X is a halide counteranion, e.g., a chloridecounteranion.

As generally defined above for Formula (II), R⁵ and R⁶ are independentlyselected from —OR^(B), —N(R^(B))₂, and a group of Formula (i):

provided at least one of R⁵ and R⁶ is a group of Formula (i), whereinX⁻, R⁴ and n are as defined herein.

In certain embodiments, R⁵ is —OR^(B) and R⁶ is a group of Formula (i).

In certain embodiments, R⁵ is —N(R^(B))₂ and R⁶ is a group of Formula(i).

In certain embodiments, R⁶ is —OR^(B) and R⁵ is a group of Formula (i).

In certain embodiments, R⁶ is —N(R^(B))₂ and R⁵ is a group of Formula(i).

In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R^(B) is hydrogen. Incertain embodiments, at least one instance of R^(B) is substituted orunsubstituted alkyl, e.g., —CH₃, substituted or unsubstituted aralkyl.In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R^(B) is substituted orunsubstituted alkenyl, e.g., allyl. In certain embodiments, at least oneinstance of R^(B) is substituted or unsubstituted alkynyl, e.g.,propynyl. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R^(B) issubstituted or unsubstituted carbocyclyl. In certain embodiments, atleast one instance of R^(B) is substituted or unsubstitutedheterocyclyl. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R^(B) issubstituted or unsubstituted aryl. In certain embodiments, at least oneinstance of R^(B) is substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl. In certainembodiments, R^(B) is an oxygen protecting group. In certainembodiments, at least one instance of R^(B) is a nitrogen protectinggroup.

In certain embodiments, wherein two R^(B) groups are attached to an Natom, the two R^(B) groups are joined to form a substituted orunsubstituted heterocyclic ring, e.g., for example, a substituted orunsubstituted pyrrolidinyl, piperidinyl, piperazinyl, or morpholinylring.

Alternatively, two R^(B) groups may be joined to form a substituted orunsubstituted heteroaryl ring, e.g., a 5- to 6-membered heteroaryl ring.

In certain embodiments, at least one R^(B) is substituted orunsubstituted aryl or substituted or unsubstituted aralkyl. In thisinstance, in certain embodiments, at least one R^(B) is a group ofFormula (a), as defined herein.

As would be appreciated by one of skill in the art, various combinationsof R¹, R², R³, R⁴, R⁵, R⁶, R^(A), R^(B), X and n as described herein arepossible and contemplated by the present invention. The invention is notlimited by the particular formulae and conditions explicitly described.

In certain embodiments, wherein R³ is hydrogen, the compound of Formula(I) is Formula (I-a):

In certain embodiments, wherein n is 2, the compound of Formula (I) isFormula (I-b):

In certain embodiments of Formula (I-b), R³ is hydrogen.

In certain embodiments, wherein n is 2, and each instance of R⁴ is —CH₃,the compound of Formula (I) is Formula (I-c):

In certain embodiments of Formula (I-c), R³ is hydrogen.

Exemplary compounds of Formula (I) include, but are not limited to:

wherein X⁻ is a counteranion. In certain embodiments X⁻ is a chloridecounteranion.

In certain embodiments, wherein R³ is hydrogen, the compound of Formula(II) is Formula (II-a):

In certain embodiments, wherein R⁵ is a group of Formula (i) and R⁶ is—OR^(B), the compound of Formula (II) is Formula (II-b):

In certain embodiments of Formula (II-b), R³ is hydrogen.

In certain embodiments, wherein n is 2, R⁵ is a group of Formula (i),and R⁶ is —OR^(B), the compound of Formula (II) is Formula (II-c):

In certain embodiments of Formula (II-c), R³ is hydrogen.

In certain embodiments, wherein n is 2, each instance of R⁴ is —CH₃, R⁵is a group of Formula (i), and R⁶ is —OR^(B), the compound of Formula(II) is Formula (II-d):

In certain embodiments of Formula (II-d), R³ is hydrogen.

In certain embodiments, wherein R⁶ is a group of Formula (i), and R⁵ is—OR^(B), the compound of Formula (II) is Formula (II-e):

In certain embodiments of Formula (II-e), R³ is hydrogen.

In certain embodiments, wherein n is 2, R⁶ is a group of Formula (i),and R⁵ is —OR^(B), the compound of Formula (II) is Formula (II-f):

In certain embodiments of Formula (II-f), R³ is hydrogen.

In certain embodiments, wherein n is 2, each instance of R⁴ is —CH₃, R⁶is a group of Formula (i), and R⁵ is —OR^(B), the compound of Formula(II) is Formula (II-g):

In certain embodiments of Formula (II-f), R³ is hydrogen.

Exemplary compounds of Formula (II) include, but are not limited to:

wherein X⁻ is a counteranion. In certain embodiments X⁻ is a chloridecounteranion.

Screening Methods and Kits

In one aspect, the present invention provides a method for detecting ametabolite in a sample comprising contacting a sample comprising ametabolite and a reagent of Formula (I) or (II):

wherein R¹, R², R⁴, R⁵, R⁶, X and n are as defined herein, and R³ ishydrogen,

wherein the metabolite and the reagent of Formula (I) or (II) react toform an adduct; and detecting the adduct, e.g., by mass spectrometry.

In certain embodiments, the sample comprises an enzyme system. Incertain embodiments, the sample comprises a test compound. In certainembodiments, the step of contacting further comprises contacting thesample comprising a test compound and the enzyme system, wherein themetabolite is generated from metabolism by the enzyme system with thetest compound. In certain embodiments, the enzyme system is a P450microsomal enzyme system. The P450 microsomal enzyme systems of thebody, e.g., typically found in the liver, help “detoxify” the humanbody. Thus, when a test compound, such as a drug or drug candidate, isintroduced into the body, a P450 microsomal enzyme system may metabolizethe drug or drug candidate. The by-product of that process may be areactive metabolite. In certain embodiments, the P450 microsomal enzymesystem is selected the group consisting of microsomes, S9 fractions, andP450 enzymes. In certain embodiments, the microsomes are mammalian livermicrosomes, e.g., human liver microsomes. In certain embodiments, the S9fraction is mammalian S9 fraction, e.g., human liver S9 fraction. Seealso U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,478,723 and 5,891,696 which describe various P450microsomal enzyme systems.

In another aspect, the screening method is a method for detecting ametabolite in a sample, the method comprising contacting a testcompound, an enzyme system, and a compound of Formula (I) or (II):

wherein R¹, R², R⁴, R⁵, R⁶, X and n are as defined herein, and R³ ishydrogen,

wherein the test compound is metabolized by the enzyme system to providea metabolite; and wherein the metabolite reacts with a compound ofFormula (I) or (II) to form an adduct; and detecting the adduct, e.g.,by mass spectrometry.

In certain embodiments, the concentration of the test compound isbetween about 1 nM and about 1 mM, for example between about 100 nM and100 uM. In certain embodiments, the concentration of the test compoundis about 10 uM. However, it should be appreciated that otherconcentrations may be used.

In certain embodiments, the concentration of the compound of Formula (I)or (II) is between about 1 nM and about 1 mM, for example between about100 nM and 100 uM. In certain embodiments, the concentration of thecompound of Formula (I) or (II) is about 5 uM. However, it should beappreciated that other concentrations may be used.

In certain embodiments, concentration of the metabolite is between about1 nM and about 1 mM, for example between about 100 nM and 100 uM.However, it should be appreciated that other concentrations may be used.

In certain embodiments, the test compound, an enzyme system, and acompound of Formula (I) or (II) are provided in a solution, e.g., anaqueous solution. In certain embodiments, the aqueous solution compriseswater, an organic solvent, or a mixture thereof. In certain embodiments,the aqueous solution is buffered, e.g., for example, buffered withpotassium phosphate buffer. In certain embodiments, the pH of theaqueous solution is about 7.0 to about 7.6, e.g., about 7.4.

In certain embodiments, the contacting step comprises pre-incubating forabout 1 to about 10 minutes, inclusive, prior to addition of aNADPH-generating system or NADPH. In certain embodiments, adductformation is initiated by addition of a NADPH-generating system orNADPH. In certain embodiments, the pre-incubating step is about 3 toabout 5 minutes, inclusive. In certain embodiments, the pre-incubatingstep is about 3 minutes.

In certain embodiments, after addition of the NADPH-generating system orNADPH, the mixture is further incubated for about 30 minutes to about 2hours. In certain embodiments, the mixture is further incubated forabout 1 hour.

In certain embodiments, the temperature of the solution during theincubating step is about 30° C. to about 40° C., inclusive. In certainembodiments, the temperature of the solution during the incubating stepis about 37° C.

In certain embodiments, the reaction is quenched prior to the detectingstep. In certain embodiments, the reaction is quenched with acid. Incertain embodiments, the acid is an inorganic acid, e.g., HCl. Incertain embodiments, the acid is an organic acid, e.g., formic acid. Incertain embodiments, the reaction is quenched with 0.1% formic acid inan organic solvent, e.g., acetonitrile. In certain embodiments, afterquenching, the reaction is centerfuged, and the sample is testeddirectly without further purification or additional work-up.

In certain embodiments, the adduct is detected by mass spectrometry(MS). As used herein, “detecting” encompasses identifying the presenceof the adduct directly as well as indirectly, such as by inferring thepresence of the adduct from the identification of a characteristicmoiety or fragmentation product of the adduct, e.g., when the adduct isfurther processed (e.g., for example, by the collision induceddissociation produced in a triple quadropole mass spectrometer). Incertain embodiments, the mass spectrometry is tandem mass spectrometry(MS/MS). In certain embodiments, the mass spectrometry is ESI coupledwith tandem mass spectrometry (ESI-MS/MS). In certain embodiments, theadduct is detected using a combination of liquid chromatography coupledto mass spectrometry. In certain embodiments, the liquid chromatographyis high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC). In certain embodiments,the liquid chromatography is ultra high pressure liquid chromatography(UPLC or UHPLC).

In certain embodiments, the methods as described herein are methods fordetecting low levels of already known metabolites. In certainembodiments, the methods as described herein are methods of identifyingnew metabolites. In certain embodiments, the methods as described hereinare methods of improving the resolution or confidence of metabolitedetection.

Further provided are kits for performing the assays as described herein.The kits may include, are are not limited to, one or more enzymesystems, standard test compounds, vials and/or containers, solutions,one or more compounds of Formula (I) or (II), and instructions for use.

Covalent Adduct Formation

In vivo, glutathione (GSH) covalently binds through its nucleophilicthiol group with the reactive electrophilic moieties of reactive speciesto form stable S-substituted conjugates, which are excreted, therebyproviding a natural mechanism for preventing such reactive species frombinding with vital cellular constituents. The screening assays asdescribed herein are contemplated to mimic the in vivo behavior ofglutathione. The reaction of the free thiol group of a compound ofFormula (I) or (II) with one or more reactive metabolites present in thesample to form a covalent adduct is a chemical reaction well-known inthe art, see, e.g., Fluharty, Biochemistry of the Thiol Group, In theChemistry of the Thiol Group, ed. S. Patai, Wiley, New York, 1974;Clark, Chemical Reviews (1980) 80:429-452; Fujita et al., BioorganicChemistry (1977) 6:287-309; and Perlmutter, Conjugated AdditionReactions in Organic Synthesis, Pergamon, Oxford, 1992. For example, thethiol group may react with Michael acceptors or dienes by 1,4-addition,or with activated carbonyl groups or olefinic groups by 1,2-addition, toform covalent adducts.

Thus, in another aspect, provided is a covalent adduct of the metaboliteand the compound of Formula (I) or (II):

wherein R¹, R², R⁴, R⁵, R⁶, X and n are as defined herein, and theMetabolite prior to formation of the adduct is a metabolite of any testcompound, e.g., a drug or drug candidate, which comprises anelectrophilic reactive moiety, e.g., a Michael acceptor, diene, olefin,or activated carbonyl group, capable of covalent conjugation with a freethiol group to form the adduct.

Exemplary drugs to be tested and which may, upon metabolism, form acovalent adduct with the thiol reagents described herein include, butare not limited to, any drug approved by the U.S. Food and DrugAdministration as provided in the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR).Drug candidates are compounds not yet approved, but are underdevelopment for biological testing on a subject, e.g., a human (i.e., amale or female of any age group, e.g., a pediatric subject (e.g.,infant, child, adolescent) or adult subject (e.g., young adult,middleaged adult or senior adult)) and/or other non-human animals, forexample mammals [e.g., primates (e.g., cynomolgus monkeys, rhesusmonkeys); and commercially relevant mammals such as mice, rats,hampsters, cattle, pigs, horses, sheep, goats, cats, and/or dogs] andbirds (e.g., commercially relevant birds such as chickens, ducks, geese,and/or turkeys).

It should be appreciated that in some embodiments the detection of anadduct in a sample can be indicative of a reactive metabolite that maybe undesirable (e.g., potentially toxic to a subject). In someembodiments, if an adduct is detected (e.g., for a drug candidate)further analysis of the adduct can be useful to identify the reactivemetabolite. In some embodiments, the presence of a particular reactivemetabolite and/or undesirable levels or one or more reactive metabolitescan lead to a drug or drug candidate not being selected for therapeuticuse. In some embodiments, if a particular reactive metabolite and/orundesirable levels or one or more reactive metabolites are detected in asample, a drug candidate can be modified and/or one or more syntheticsteps for the drug or drug candidate can be modified to avoid or reducethe level of one or more reactive metabolites.

EXAMPLES

These and other aspects of the present invention will be furtherappreciated upon consideration of the following Examples, which areintended to illustrate certain particular embodiments of the inventionbut are not intended to limit its scope, as defined by the claims.

Synthesis of Cholamine-Modified Cysteine (cys-chol)

Protected cysteine was coupled to cholamine using standard peptidecoupling conditions. Deprotection afforded the final product, cys-chol,which was purified by SPE with WCX cartridge. Purity of the finalproduct was confirmed by LC-MS.

In Vitro Liver Microsomal Incubations

Pooled human liver microsomes (HLM) were obtained. 320 uL of HLM mastermix (HLM, 20 mg/mL; 1 mg/mL final concentration) was added to anincubation tube containing cysteine or cys-chol in phosphate buffer (0.1M final concentration, pH 7.4), followed by addition of 40 uL of 100 uMof test compound in water (10 uM final concentration). Followingpreincubation at 37° C. for 3 minutes, the reaction was initiated by theaddition of 40 uL of a 10 mM NADPH-generating system, 6.2 mMDL-isocitric acid, and 0.5 units/mL isocitric dehydrogenase). The finalincubation volume was 250 uL. Samples without substrate or NADPH addedwere used as negative controls. After 60 minutes of incubation at 37° C.and 400 rpm, 400 uL of acetonitrile with 0.1% formic acid were added tothe incubations, which were then centerfuged (max rpm, 5 min). Thesupernatant (200 uL) was transferred to a 96 well plate directly forLC-MS, without further evaporation steps.

Results

Liquid chromatography and Electrosprapy Ionization (ESI)-Tandem MassSpectrometry were employed. Metabolites from nine tested drugs withcysteine or cys-chol as the trapping reagents were analyzed by UPLC-LTQOrbitrap or UPLC-AB SCIEX 5600. See Table 1. From these experiments, itwas determined that cys-chol trapping is more sensitive than cysteinetrapping. See Table 2.

TABLE 1 Detected Detected Cysteine Theoretical in in Cys-cholTheoretical Detected in Detected in Drug adduct MH+ Orbitrap AB 5600adduct MH+ Orbitrap AB 5600 Atorvastatin Ator + Cys + O − 2H 694.2593 NDND Ator + Chol + O − 2H 778.3644 778.3627 778.3636 Bosentan Bos + Cys −CH2 657.1796 ND ND Bos + Chol − CH2 741.2847 741.2840 741.2867Carbamazepine CMZ + Cys − 2H 356.1063 ND 356.1057 CMZ + Chol − 2H440.2115 440.2101 440.2125 CMZ + Cys + O 374.1169 ND ND CMZ + Chol + O458.2220 ND 458.2224 Clozapine Clo + Cys − 2H 446.1412 446.1400 446.1410Clo + Chol − 2H 530.2463 530.2444 530.2460 Clo + Cys − CH2 432.1255 ND432.1256 Clo + Chol − CH2 516.2307 ND 516.2305 Clo + Cys − Cl 416.1751ND ND Clo + Chol − HCl 496.2853 ND 496.2849 Clo + Cys + O 464.1518 ND464.1523 Clo + Chol + O 548.2569 ND 548.2553 Clo + Cys + O − 2H 462.1361462.1344 462.1366 Clo + Chol + O − 2H 546.2412 546.2400 546.2409Diclofenac Dic + Cys − 2H 415.0281 415.0258 415.0289 Dic + Chol − 2H499.1332 499.1317 499.1345 Dic + Cys + O − 2H 431.023 ND 431.0232 Dic +Chol + O − 2H 515.1281 515.1270 515.1273 Dic + Cys + O − Cl 397.0619397.0606 397.0619 Dic + Chol + O − HCl 481.1671 481.1659 481.1667Suprofen Sup + Cys 382.0777 ND ND Sup + Chol 466.1829 466.1809 466.1843Sup + Cys − 2H 380.0621 380.0622 380.0604 Sup + Chol − 2H 464.1672464.1658 464.1676 Troglitazone Trog + Cys − 2H 561.1724 ND ND Trog +Chol − 2H 645.2775 645.2751 645.2758 Trog + Cys + O 579.1829 ND NDTrog + Chol + O 663.2881 ND 663.2853 Trog + Cys + O − 2H 577.1673 ND NDTrog + Chol + O − 2H 661.2724 661.2706 661.2706 Compound A ComA + Cys −2H 622.1621 622.1621 622.1644 ComA + Cys − 2H 706.2672 706.2654 706.2667ComA + Cys + O − 2H 638.157 ND 638.1566 ComA + Cys + O − 2H 722.2621 ND722.2628 Compound B ComB + Cys − 2H 703.2199 703.2175 703.2159 ComB +Cys − 2H 787.3251 787.3241 787.3233 ComB + Cys + O − 2H 719.2149719.2125 719.2150 ComB + Cys + O − 2H 803.3200 803.3194 803.3169

TABLE 2 Number of metabolites found in nine drugs Cysteine trapping(cys) Cys-chol trapping Orbitrap 8 15 AB5600 13 21

Sensitivity Comparison of Three Trapping Reagents

Table 3 provides a comparison of the sensitivity of the trappingclozapine and clozapine metabolites with GSH, cysteine (Cys), and theCys-chol conjugate. See also FIGS. 1A, 1B, 2A, 2B, 3A, and 3B.

TABLE 3 Cys-Chol Cys-Chol GSH Cys Cys-Chol signal signal DetectedDetected Detected relative to relative to Clozapine-adduct m/z (Y/N) m/z(Y/N) m/z (Y/N) GSH signal Cys signal 1 Loss of Cl − 2H + TR 598 ND 412Yes 496 Yes 5.6 2 Demethylation − 618 ND 432 Yes 516 Yes 1.9 2H + TR 3−2H + TR 632 ND 446 Yes 530 Yes 7.3 4 −2H + TR Yes Yes Yes 10.8 11.2 5−2H + TR Yes Yes Yes 4.1 2.4 6 −2H + TR ND ND Yes 7 +O − 2H + TR 648 ND462 ND 546 Yes 8 +O − 2H + TR ND ND Yes 9 +O − 2H + TR Yes Yes Yes 4.31.9 10 +O − 2H + TR Yes ND Yes 6.3 11 +O + TR 650 ND 464 Yes 548 Yes 3.612 +O + TR Yes Yes Yes 5.7 1.5 *ND = Not determined

Equivalents and Scope

In the claims articles such as “a,” “an,” and “the” may mean one or morethan one unless indicated to the contrary or otherwise evident from thecontext. Claims or descriptions that include “or” between one or moremembers of a group are considered satisfied if one, more than one, orall of the group members are present in, employed in, or otherwiserelevant to a given product or process unless indicated to the contraryor otherwise evident from the context. The invention includesembodiments in which exactly one member of the group is present in,employed in, or otherwise relevant to a given product or process. Theinvention includes embodiments in which more than one, or all of thegroup members are present in, employed in, or otherwise relevant to agiven product or process.

Furthermore, the invention encompasses all variations, combinations, andpermutations in which one or more limitations, elements, clauses, anddescriptive terms from one or more of the listed claims is introducedinto another claim. For example, any claim that is dependent on anotherclaim can be modified to include one or more limitations found in anyother claim that is dependent on the same base claim. Where elements arepresented as lists, e.g., in Markush group format, each subgroup of theelements is also disclosed, and any element(s) can be removed from thegroup. It should it be understood that, in general, where the invention,or aspects of the invention, is/are referred to as comprising particularelements and/or features, certain embodiments of the invention oraspects of the invention consist, or consist essentially of, suchelements and/or features. For purposes of simplicity, those embodimentshave not been specifically set forth in haec verba herein. It is alsonoted that the terms “comprising” and “containing” are intended to beopen and permits the inclusion of additional elements or steps. Whereranges are given, endpoints are included. Furthermore, unless otherwiseindicated or otherwise evident from the context and understanding of oneof ordinary skill in the art, values that are expressed as ranges canassume any specific value or subrange within the stated ranges indifferent embodiments of the invention, to the tenth of the unit of thelower limit of the range, unless the context clearly dictates otherwise.

This application refers to various issued patents, published patentapplications, journal articles, and other publications, all of which areincorporated herein by reference. If there is a conflict between any ofthe incorporated references and the instant specification, thespecification shall control. In addition, any particular embodiment ofthe present invention that falls within the prior art may be explicitlyexcluded from any one or more of the claims. Because such embodimentsare deemed to be known to one of ordinary skill in the art, they may beexcluded even if the exclusion is not set forth explicitly herein. Anyparticular embodiment of the invention can be excluded from any claim,for any reason, whether or not related to the existence of prior art.

Those skilled in the art will recognize or be able to ascertain using nomore than routine experimentation many equivalents to the specificembodiments described herein. The scope of the present embodimentsdescribed herein is not intended to be limited to the above Description,but rather is as set forth in the appended claims. Those of ordinaryskill in the art will appreciate that various changes and modificationsto this description may be made without departing from the spirit orscope of the present invention, as defined in the following claims.

1-11. (canceled)
 12. A compound of Formula (I):

wherein: each instance of R¹ and R² is independently hydrogen,substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, substituted or unsubstitutedalkenyl, substituted or unsubstituted alkynyl, substituted orunsubstituted carbocyclyl, substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclyl,substituted or unsubstituted aryl, substituted or unsubstitutedheteroaryl, —C(═O)R^(A), —C(═O)OR^(A), —C(═O)N(R^(A))₂, or an aminoprotecting group, or R¹ and R² are joined to form a substituted orunsubstituted heterocyclic ring; each instance of R^(A) is independentlyhydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, substituted orunsubstituted alkenyl, substituted or unsubstituted alkynyl, substitutedor unsubstituted carbocyclyl, substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclyl,substituted or unsubstituted aryl, substituted or unsubstitutedheteroaryl, an oxygen protecting group when attached to an oxygen atom,or a nitrogen protecting group when attached to a nitrogen atom, or twoR^(A) groups are joined to form a substituted or unsubstitutedheterocyclic ring; R³ is hydrogen or a sulfur protecting group; eachinstance of R⁴ is independently substituted or unsubstituted alkyl,substituted or unsubstituted alkenyl, substituted or unsubstitutedalkynyl, substituted or unsubstituted carbocyclyl, substituted orunsubstituted heterocyclyl, substituted or unsubstituted aryl,substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, or an amino protecting group,or two R⁴ groups are joined to form a substituted or unsubstitutedheterocyclic ring; n is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6; and X⁻ is a counteranion.13. A compound of Formula (II):

wherein: each instance of R¹ and R² is independently hydrogen,substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, substituted or unsubstitutedalkenyl, substituted or unsubstituted alkynyl, substituted orunsubstituted carbocyclyl, substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclyl,substituted or unsubstituted aryl, substituted or unsubstitutedheteroaryl, —C(═O)R^(A), —C(═O)OR^(A), —C(═O)N(R^(A))₂, or an aminoprotecting group, or R¹ and R² are joined to form a substituted orunsubstituted heterocyclic ring; each instance of R^(A) is independentlyhydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, substituted orunsubstituted alkenyl, substituted or unsubstituted alkynyl, substitutedor unsubstituted carbocyclyl, substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclyl,substituted or unsubstituted aryl, substituted or unsubstitutedheteroaryl, an oxygen protecting group when attached to an oxygen atom,or a nitrogen protecting group when attached to a nitrogen atom, or twoR^(A) groups are joined to form a substituted or unsubstitutedheterocyclic ring; R³ is hydrogen or a sulfur protecting group; R⁵ andR⁶ are independently selected from —OR^(B), —N(R^(B))₂, and a group offormula (i):

provided at least one of R⁵ and R⁶ is a group of formula (i); eachinstance of R^(B) is independently hydrogen, substituted orunsubstituted alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted alkenyl, substitutedor unsubstituted alkynyl, substituted or unsubstituted carbocyclyl,substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclyl, substituted or unsubstitutedaryl, substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, an oxygen protectinggroup when attached to an oxygen atom, or a nitrogen protecting groupwhen attached to a nitrogen atom, or two R^(B) groups are joined to forma substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclic ring; each instance of R⁴ isindependently substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, substituted orunsubstituted alkenyl, substituted or unsubstituted alkynyl, substitutedor unsubstituted carbocyclyl, substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclyl,substituted or unsubstituted aryl, substituted or unsubstitutedheteroaryl, or an amino protecting group, or two R⁴ groups are joined toform a substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclic ring; n is 1, 2, 3, 4,5, or 6; and X⁻ is a counteranion.
 14. The compound of claim 12, whereinR¹ is hydrogen, and R² is hydrogen, —C(═O)R^(A), —C(═O)OR^(A),—C(═O)N(R^(A))₂, or an amino protecting group.
 15. The compound of claim12, wherein R¹ is hydrogen and R² is hydrogen.
 16. The compound of claim12, wherein R¹ is hydrogen and R² is —C(═O)CH₃.
 17. The compound ofclaim 12, wherein R¹ is hydrogen and R² is —C(═O)R^(A), —C(═O)OR^(A), or—C(═O)NHR^(A), wherein R^(A) is a group of formula:

wherein p is 0, 1, or 2; m is 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; and R⁷ is halogen. 18.The compound of claim 17, wherein R⁷ is bromo or fluoro. 19-20.(canceled)
 21. The compound of claim 13, wherein R^(B) is a group offormula:

wherein p is 0, 1, or 2; m is 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; and R⁷ is halogen. 22.The compound of claim 21, wherein R⁷ is bromo or fluoro.
 23. (canceled)24. The compound of claim 21, wherein m is 5 and R⁷ is fluoro.
 25. Thecompound of claim 12, wherein R³ is hydrogen.
 26. The compound of claim12, wherein each instance of R⁴ is independently substituted orunsubstituted alkyl.
 27. The compound of claim 26, wherein each instanceof R⁴ is independently substituted or unsubstituted C₁₋₆ alkyl.
 28. Thecompound of claim 27, wherein each instance of R⁴ is —CH₃.
 29. Thecompound of claim 12, wherein n is
 2. 30. The compound of claim 12,wherein X⁻ is a chloride counteranion.
 31. The compound of claim 12 ofFormula (I-a), Formula (I-b), or Formula (I-c):

32-33. (canceled)
 34. The compound of claim 12, wherein the compound isselected from the group consisting of:


35. The compound of claim 13 of Formula (II-a), Formula (II-b), Formula(II-c), Formula (II-d), Formula (II-e), Formula (II-f), or Formula(II-g):

36-41. (canceled)
 42. The compound of claim 13, wherein the compound isselected from the group consisting of: